Persian and Greek Strategies during Xerxe's invasions

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Strategies of the Persians and Greeks

Evaluate the Greek and Persian strategy in Xerxes' invasion of 480-47BC

In the years before the discovery of gunpowder, canons and nuclear weapons, ancient warfare relied on the adoption of sly and skilful tactics. This is clearly evident throughout the historical period of the "Third Persian Campaign" where Xerxes the Persian king (486-465 BC) invaded Greece seeking revenge for his father Darius' humiliating defeat at Marathon. In the time period of 480-47 BCE, the Persians and the Greeks used a variety of techniques such as intimidation, encirclement and more importantly the extensive use of naval vessels. Much of the Greeks' success also came about through their employment of trickery as well as their clever choice of battle sites.

We are firstly told by Herodotus that Xerxes spent four long years to planning his incursions. One of his main objectives was to travel across Greece without any drawbacks; this was achieved through his implementation of "scare tactics". In comparison to Xerxes' Persian forces, Darius' past army would have been seen as minute. The number of his troops was the largest ever to have been assembled in the ancient world consisting of an estimated 100 000 enslaved men from all over the Persian Empire, and most notably the inclusion of an elite corps of ten-thousand soldiers often referred to as the "Immortals". Just knowing these statistics would have sent alarm bells off in Greece, where city states such as Thrace submitted to the Persians without any threatening any form of conflict. The terrifying reputation that he had built for his army through the creation of the canal at Mt Athos and the construction of the floating bridge at the Hellespont, allowed Xerxes to achieve one of his main goals in these battles to march closer to his target Athens unthreatened.

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The first two battles in the second invasion of Greece were that of Thermopylae and Artemisium, which have been disputed to have been deliberate "distractions" known to have deterred the attention of the Persians away from the Athenian civilians allowing them to escape to Salamis. In the battle of Thermopylae, the legendary Spartan king Leonidas lead the Greek contingent behind a reinforced ancient stone wall which protected them from any harm for four days, another prime example of a protective barricade was the palisade built by the Persians in the battle of Plataea. Although Xerxes eventually managed to break through the Greek barrier many of the Persians were defeated, after the Spartans instigated their well-planned tactic where they would firstly simulated a retreat encouraging the Persians to chase after them, then return in full force and attack the unsuspecting enemy who by then would have separated into an unorganized mass from the run. This act saw the death of hundreds of Xerxes' frontline ranks and incredibly the demise of his highly valued Immortals.

Similarly to the battle of Marathon, the employment of spies was also evident in this battle. Xerxes' victory in Thermopylae was due solely to the knowledge of Ephialtes who lead the Persian aggressors on a hidden mountain path, which would allow them to reach the Greeks. This information enabled Xerxes to use another tactic- encirclement; this ploy was carried out by Persian commander Hydarnes and the immortals who surrounded the Greek troops. Despite the loss of 00 Spartiates and their king Leonidas, the number of Greek casualties had been reduced after Leonidas had sent the majority of his troops to safety after being informed by yet another spy

In the time surrounding the battles of Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea- the Greek navy had the reputation of being one of the most powerful in the Mediterranean region. This was mainly due to their expert construction and use of triremes. These vessels were built for speed and outstanding mobility in water, which played key factors in their success in the straits of Salamis. Greek playwright Aeschylus recorded how the size of their vessels gave the Greeks an advantage over the larger and heavier Persian ships "Crushed ships lay unturned on the sea so thick that none could see the water, choked with wrecks and slaughtered me; while the shores and reefs were strewn with Persian corpses". The battle of Salamis also saw the use of naval formations such as the defensive position called the "kyklos" tactic- where the Greeks ships would form a circle with their bows pointing outwards towards the enemy. This arrangement prevented the ships from being rammed in the side, and was used when the fleet was outnumbered.

Both of the Persians and the Greeks were aware of each other's assets and weaknesses. Xerxes' forces relied heavily on the use of their cavalry whereas the Greeks invested in their navy. Each of the opposing sides chose certain battle sites to reduce the advantage these resources had. For example, in preparation for the battle of Salamis, the Greeks knew that the Persian ships would noticeably outnumber them. The straits of Salamis were the ideal location for the Greeks, as the narrow waters would enable them to fight the Persians on equal terms. Thermopylae was also selected for its narrow area, which would protect the Greeks from the fierce Persian cavalry. However Plataea was chosen by the Persians to allow the Persian commander Mardonius to maneuver their cavalry. Plataea was also chosen as it was a Persian ally.

The Persian wars are renowned for the intelligent use of primitive war tactics where weapons of this modern age were replaced with scare tactics, encirclement, the use of fast triremes and more significantly their employment of spies, deception and in their selection of locations of their battles. Whichever side used more of these above mentioned strategies would gain them the upperhand and usually were victorious in the conflict.

Please note that this sample paper on Persian and Greek Strategies during Xerxe's invasions is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Persian and Greek Strategies during Xerxe's invasions, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Persian and Greek Strategies during Xerxe's invasions will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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"The witches are greatly to blameFor Macbeth's fortunes"

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"The witches are greatly to blame

For Macbeth's fortunes"

William Shakespeare has told a tale of a tragic hero's journey down a misleading path of evil, and how power and the misuse of power can lead to downfall and misfortune, when in the wrong hands. We see this journey through the eyes of a courageous soldier called Macbeth, who stumbled across three wicked evil witches who were mostly to blame for his misfortunes.

The witches quickly try to tempt Macbeth by appealing to his vanity and ambition. After one of the prophecies comes true, Macbeth starts to plot Duncan's death but still is still unsure. "If chance will have me king, why, chance my crown me, without my stir." (Act 1, scene ) Already Macbeth has been intertwined with the forces of evil that the witches have presented, and beginning to yield with temptation.

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As the witches accomplish their first task, they decide to take it further and tell Macbeth halftruths. The second apparition tells him "Be bloody, bold, and resolute; laugh to scorn the power of man, for none of woman born shall harm Macbeth" (Act 4, scene 1). This prophecy tells Macbeth that he will not be killed by anyone born of woman. This is half true because Macbeth was defeated by Macduff who was born caesarean section and not by natural birth. The third apparition says "Be lion mettled, proud, and take no care who chafes, who frets, or where conspires are Macbeth shall never vanquish'd be until great birnam wood to high Dansinane hill shall come against him" (act 4, scene 1) Macbeth believes this is true knowing that a forest cannot move.

But the witches also made it possible for Macbeth to believe in evil powers. "I bear a charmed life, which must not yield to one of women born. Accursed be that tongue that tells me so, for it hath cow'd my better part of me." (Act 5, scene 8). Macbeth has become immune to danger and is prepared to live a life of evil and mistrust. The witches have corrupted him leading him to believe in the powers of evil.

The witches have corrupted Macbeth so much that at the end of the play he lost not only his wife and honour but also his friends and is now lonely and isolated. So the witches corrupted Macbeth but temptation was also there for Banquo who did not yield. There were other factors that bought about Macbeths fortunes.

Lady Macbeth had a great deal of responsibility towards Macbeth's misfortunes. She supported him in wrongful ideas. "Hie thee hither, that I may pour my spirits in thine ear, and chastise with the valour of my tongue all that impedes thee from the golden round." (Act 1, Scene 5) Lady Macbeth has had the evil thought of making Macbeth king from the time she read the letter that had been sent to her. She takes responsibility. She plans action in spite of Macbeth's refusal.

She also tries to manipulate him by engaging to his man-hood by describing him as a coward. "Which thou esteem'st the ornament of life, and live a coward in thine own esteem." (Act 1, Scene 7) She knows how to appeal to him and get to the point where Macbeth gives up and lets Lady Macbeth take over. But her influence is limited after her initial actions.

Macbeth himself brought this upon himself as well. He has also contributed to his downfall and misfortunes. Macbeth was very vain, after the first prophecy of him being thane of Cawdor came true, he instantly thought, why stop here? That he should keep going. "Glamis and thane of Cawdor The greatest is behind. Thanks for you pains" (Act 1, Scene ). Now the fact that he is both Thane of Glamis and Cawdor his vanity and his macho-ness have excelled and he wants that little bit more. "If chance will have me king, why, chance my crown me, without my stir" (Act 1, Scene ). He now has that task of making happen. He might be vain but with that comes weakness.

His weakness came about by allowing Lady Macbeth to overrule him. She made him feel worthless, and that not until he became king that he will finally be a man.

Macbeth's ambition really weighed him out because he desperately wanted the prizes the witches offered him. He wanted it so badly that jealousy and anger overruled his rage and he conquered his ambition and became king.

He was self centred, that he sacrificed his friends. But he also had a fear of Banquo. "To be thus, is nothing; but to be safely thus our fears in Banquo" (Act , Scene 1). Macbeth is terrified of Banquo for two reasons that he knows too much and that Banquo could discover Macbeth secrets. So Macbeth had only one thing on his mind and that was to Murder Banquo and his son. Scared that Fleance, Banquo's son, will become king whilst Macbeth is still in reign, Macbeth believes that murdering Fleance would be the best for his kingship.

Macbeth is a character that was born cruel. He is described as the 'The dead butcher' because he killed Duncan, killed Lady Macduff and her son, killed Banquo and he killed his wife. He stoped giving her affection which brought Lady Macbeths death. She didn't want Macbeth to see her in a state where all she could think about is evil assassination that she paned herself. But Macbeth's ignorance and lack of trust, and love for her brought Macbeth's biggest misfortune, this was the death of his wife.

William Shakespeare has portrayed the role of Macbeth as a tragic hero. Macbeth did have a lot to blame for his fortunes but the witches finalised the realisation of it all. They showed him that to get anywhere in life you have to fight for it. Macbeth and his wife plotted an ingenious plan to eliminate the present king. But that took of from there. They didn't realise that they had stepped so far into a pool of blood, that to turn around would get then into more trouble than to keep going. And the witches helped them in accomplishing that dream.

Please note that this sample paper on "The witches are greatly to blameFor Macbeth's fortunes" is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on "The witches are greatly to blameFor Macbeth's fortunes", we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on "The witches are greatly to blameFor Macbeth's fortunes" will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Robert Frost. Road not taken

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Everyone has a different upbringing and with that comes a different education. I had a major change in my education two years ago. Only two years I moved from Germany, where I had done all my schoolwork in German to New Zealand, where I had to do my schoolwork in English and hardly knew anyone. I had to cope with doing my sixth form certificate in English, as well as jump one and a half years to be with the same aged people.

A well rounded education is the first step towards a society that reflects the foundation of knowledge it is built upon. A well-rounded society depends on past knowledge and achievements, current success and future aspirations, which leads to a well-rounded education.

Looking back this was a step too big for me and it would have been more comfortable to start in fifth form, but one always knows better afterwards and anyway I learn by making mistakes.

The school in Germany I had come from was a private Waldorfschool, which is quite different to the public education system. I feel very privileged that I was able to go to such a school and also go to a normal state school in New Zealand, which did not only broaden my understanding of education, but also let me experience the differences between the education systems. It would be a lie to say that the pressure to achieve in school and to adjust to all the cultural differences was easy, because I honestly found it difficult. But I made the best of the situation, even though I struggled immensely to adjust to the new school system, new language and make new friends. It did not really help that I didn't find any friends who I couldn't really talk to in the first year, because I was concentrating so hard on passing my school exams.

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This year I have settled in, coping with the change and slowly even getting marks that show the effort I put in to all my work. I have learnt a lot from the hard times last year, which have added to my well-rounded education. Despite the difficulties of the emigration, it is very interesting to see the differences not only in the education system but also the cultural side and how people think on this side of the world.

In my opinion there is more to a well rounded education than just being academically bright or very sportive, I consider a well-rounded education to be the balance between, culture, academic success , sports, humanitarian services and communication. I have had the privilege to receive a well rounded education from my parents. I did not only receive this great education by living in two different countries, but by my parents encouraging me to get involved in sports and cultural activities.

I have grown up with speaking two languages and over the last two years even learnt how to do my schoolwork in different languages. My parents have encouraged my to play sports for my physical as well as mental well being, play the violin and dance for my creative side, work hard and do well in school and interact with different age groups to learn communication skills. All these different actions have contributed to my character.

I believe I have received a very good well-rounded education with open minded parents encouraging individual thinking and thinking "out of the square". I feel a typical characteristic of a successful, well-rounded education is a person that can make up his own mind without following the crowd, believing what everyone else does.

The Waldorfschool I went to in Germany I believe made a huge contribution to my well-rounded education. This school is known for its development of human beings with strong characters. I believe this was achieved along with other features by " forcing" us do things we were not particularly good at. This gave us a great feeling of accomplishment once achieved and trained our perseverance. I believe our society has given up on training perseverance, as one can see the school system. If a child in here does not do well in one subject, this subject is dropped the following year to ensure good marks at the end of the year. I think this is a minus point for a well-rounded education that every school tries to offer.

According to the definition of the dictionary education is the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding, which really means that our education never ends, because we do not only receive education in school and university. We are being educated always everyday and everywhere. In fact many academically educated people think most less academically educated people are inferior to them; but as a matter of fact the less academically educated people will have a lot more practical survival knowledge than the academics.

In my opinion it is almost only possible for a western, first world born child to receive a well rounded education, since the information and education one receives living under a dictator will always be propaganda to prevent the nation from knowing any other way. If I was born in a slum in India my parents could not have afforded a good and well rounded education as I have received and still am receiving here, for which I am very grateful.

When I look at the different education systems all around the world, there will always be some point I don't agree with and others that I think is great and learn from the positives. Every human goes through a point in life, when things aren't going the way one would like them to go. These are really the times when one can learn the most, even though it will seem hard at the time to see the good. If we humans would learn from every mistake we make, we soon would have a lot less crime and ruined families. The war in Iraq would have been solved diplomatically and saved many lives and Mugabi in Zambezi would not be a dictator. Unfortunately it does not lie within the human nature to admit mistakes and learn from them. Also if we could learn from mistakes, we would long ago have a perfect education system for every nation. We would have taken all the negative downsides of education systems to make a perfect good system that would suit every learner.

Please note that this sample paper on Robert Frost. Road not taken is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Robert Frost. Road not taken, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Robert Frost. Road not taken will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Thomas Paine's "The American Crisis"

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Thomas Paine's "The American Crisis"

A piece of historical literature can have three different purposes One, contributing to the development of literary history; Two, contributing to the development of a genre or style; and three, contributing to the development of a specific country's story or telling the story of that people. Thomas Paine was one of the most persuasive and prestigous writers of the eighteenth century. Following the success of "The Common Sense", Thomas Paine decided to write yet another pamphlet "The American Crisis" to convince all of the colonists to be support of breaking away from Britain's stronghold over America. Through use of ethos, pathos and logos, Thomas Paine conquers the art of persuasive writing. "The Crisis No. 1" contributed to the melting together of all colonists to unite as a nation in spirit and in thought, thus bringing about success in the Revolutionary War.

As the editor of the best-selling publication, Pennsylvania Magazine, and author of "The Common Sense", Thomas Paine had much influence over the media. Just before the publication of the first of thirteen "Crisis" pamphlets, British General Howe had defeated General Washington more than once, the army was getting weary and discouraged, and so was the support of the colonists. It was at that moment when Thomas Paine decided to use his 'power of the press' and raise the hopes of all Americans. In December 1776, Paine wrote "The Crisis" with the intent of gaining the support of the Loyalists and the Neutrals to side with the Patriots by exposing the stubbornness and tyranny of Britain. He did not use elaborate words, but rather he wanted to speak very plainly yet directly so that even the uneducated craftsmen could understand and thus make a fair and well-informed decision. He understood that an easily readable article would be just as accepted, if not more. About halfway through the paper he states, "I shall conclude this paper with some miscellaneous remarks on the state of our affairs; and shall begin with asking the following questions" to prepare his reader for the rest of the paper and keep things simple. Paine also used phrases that were common at that period of time. Terms like "tories", which would be interpreted then as a Loyalist, "wigs", a Patriot, and "folly"were used, as well as referring to current events, leaders, and places which updated the reader on past events gave credit to Paine's view. Paine points out the fact that he is trying to be as simple as he can by saying "I bring reason to your ears, and, in language as plain as A,B,C, hold up truth to your eyes".

Thomas Paine uses ethos a lot throughout his pamphlet to communicate to the colonists on a spiritual level. One of the biggest reasons that people came to America was for religious freedom. God and religion was therefore first and foremost in the lives of the colonists, so mentioning this divine deity was a vital tactic for Paine to use, perhaps even second nature. In the opening paragraph, Paine compares the force that Britain uses to bind America, such as taxes, to a power that is "impious" and is "so unlimited" and should "belong only to God". He continues throughout his paper to refer to and thank God. He recognizes His blessing of great leaders to our country, "God hath blessed him [General Washington] with uninterrupted health, and given him a mind that can even flourish upon care". He also quotes the bible and advises the colonists to continually have faith in God, to be humble, and that He will bless them in return.

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A large concern of the colonial population was that by declaring that we would continue to go to 'war' with Britain, the term 'war' brought thoughts of blood and destruction to their minds. Paine addresses this very concern by saying that "God Almighty will not give up a people to military destruction, or leave them unsupportedly to perish, who have so earnestly and so repeatedly sought to avoid the calamities of war". Thus, he points out that America has tried to find peace with the enemy, but once the response is not for peace, America needs to go to war and fight for their country, their families, and their freedom.

Lastly, a large chunk of "The Crisis" is targeted towards those "tories" or Loyalists, who are still in support of the Crown of England. Paine makes the accusation that "Every tory is a coward; for servile, slavish, self-interested fear is the foundation of toryism; and a man under such influence, though he may be cruel, never can be brave". He says that their presence and conduct is "an invitation to the enemy", that Britain is not interested in their opinions but would use them as an internal force to be soldiers and eventually take up arms from within. He also states that General Howe is the tories' greatest enemy, with the insight that "he is bringing a war into their country, which, had it not been for him…they had been clear of". Thomas Paine is forceful and heated over this matter. However, he does not lose sight of practicality, nor does he lie; instead he makes his point directly and truthfully. The following statement is a good summary of his attitude towards this very subject "A man can distinguish himself between temper and principle, and I am as confident, as I am that God governs the world, that America will never be happy till she gets clear of foreign dominion".

"The American Crisis No. 1" is an excellent example of a persuasive writing and all that it should entail. Thomas Paine appeals to all the emotions of the reader emotionally, logically, as well as spiritually. To do this, Paine wanted to appeal to all audiences by using common, everyday language. He also recognized that mentioning God would perhaps create a more attentive ear. Thurs, Thomas Paine was able to successfully write "The American Crisis" and persuade many more colonists to join in the fight against Britain, which would ultimately lead to victory.

Please note that this sample paper on Thomas Paine's "The American Crisis" is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Thomas Paine's "The American Crisis", we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on Thomas Paine's "The American Crisis" will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Male-female relationships

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Since the 1th century, the conception of male-female relationships and marriage has evolved, but not necessarily, as many would consider, in the right direction. The divorce rate has soared in this day and age, and continues to climb at an alarming rate. In previous centuries, the term "divorce" was practically unheard of. Strong morals and religious beliefs preserved marriages, despite the couple's disagreements. Kate Chopin, born in 1851, was a women's rights activist who expresses her view on this topic in her work, "The Story of an Hour." In this story, she emphasizes the inferiority that wives had to endure during the 1th century, as well as their, "need for independence and capacity for passion." (Walker) Ernest Hemingway is another author who depicts the hardships encountered during marriage in his work, "Cat in the Rain." In this story, he focuses on the characteristics of a lack luster marriage, gone bad. Although these authors and their works are from a different era, similar conflicts remain very much a part of the modern lifestyle of individuals involved in relationships or marriages. However, because of its relative ease, undergoing divorce has become the popular solution exercised by a great percentage of couples in today's world.

In, "Story of an Hour," Kate Chopin explains the emotions of a wife experiencing the sudden loss of her husband. Although minimal information is revealed concerning the husband, we can infer a great deal about relationships during this time, through the wife's response to her husband's death. Her initial feelings of grief and denial quickly transform into a sense of dignified freedom. This era is obviously characterized by a significance of status, with the husband playing the dominant role, having complete control, while the wife portrays the inferior figure, lacking any such power. Because women are labeled with predetermined futures as nothing more than homemaking housewives, her reaction is justifiable. She is presented with a newfound life and is no longer bound by a, "powerful will bending her in that blind persistence." (Chopin) She imagines the life ahead of her, "Spring days, and summer days, and all sorts of days that would be her own." She has longed for freedom, and now it is hers to enjoy. As the story concludes, the realization that her husband remains alive causes her to drop dead. The positive emotions that consumed her so suddenly, vanished just as quickly.

As a feminist, Kate Chopin represents the feelings of many women during her time. She is able to relate to the subjection women are faced with during this century. Throughout this era, marriage is considered more of an agreement and love is of less significance. Chopin allows the reader to understand this in her description of the deceased husband, "The face that had never looked save with love upon her." (Chopin) "Before the feminist movement, most men and women had very different relationships from the men and women of today." (Anderson (Women's)) Both the husband and wife are assigned roles, and until future strides for women's rights are made, the position a wife fulfills, stereotypically is the homemaker. As one can observe from this piece of literature, freedom and power are precious possessions occupied for the most part, by the male figure within the relationship. It takes the death of her husband, which many individuals would consider devastating, to free the illustrious life caged in since their conjoining.

Hemingway's, "Cat in the Rain," is a story about a rich couple from America vacationing in Italy. Taking place in the early 0th century, Hemingway details their vacation, which becomes a parity of their overall marriage. The husband's self-centered character is complimentary of the wife's lack of attention. While in their hotel room, "facing the sea," (Hemingway) the struggle to connect with one another causes the wife to look elsewhere. The hotel manager's extremely affectionate nature is attractive to her. Hemingway describes her interest in the man, "She liked his dignity. She liked the way he wanted to serve her…She liked his old, heavy face and big hands." (Hemingway) This story illustrates a stale relationship, and its potential consequences.

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Similar to, "The Story of an Hour," the husband is the targeted figure creating the downfall of the marriage in, "Cat in the Rain." Both husbands portray the "bad guy" in that neither expresses the necessary affection of a proper husband. In both stories the relationships are unsatisfactory, however, the course of action in, "Cat in the Rain," is quite different. This can in part be attributed to the distinction of time. Hemingway emphasizes the sarcastically argumentative manner in which the husband and wife express their emotions. Adversely, Chopin fails to propose any confrontation between the couple, perhaps due to its non-existence in that era. I believe Hemingway is also trying to emphasize the idea that money cannot buy happiness. The couple is vacationing in Italy and staying in a room overlooking the sea. Obviously, there is no shortage of money between them. Yet, their financial status doesn't automatically signify a loving marriage.

Through these stories, I can conclude that although a bit exaggerated, the subject matter, overall appropriately matches its time period. In this era, it is accepted by society that women are inferior to men. The husband always has the last say. A women's freedom has its cost. "Before the feminist movement, the traditional American female was confined to role of homemaker and controlled by her financial independence on men particularly her husband." (Anderson (Men's)) As time moves on the wife is capable of voicing her opinion. Yet, her rights remain limited. The husband's behavior remains the same however. In both stories, the man is the decision maker and controls the marriage. Today, both separation and divorce have become popular solutions, which previously were not reasonable options.

Please note that this sample paper on male-female relationships is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on male-female relationships, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on male-female relationships will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Potiki

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The role of the novelist is to ask questions and explore issues about our society. Discuss this statement with detailed reference to a novel you've studied.

Eve Hermansson

In the New Zealand novel 'Potiki', author Patricia Grace has chosen to pose questions and explore issues in the role of a gentle subversive. She criticises New Zealand society specifically and projects her own opinions without creating conflict. One is almost unaware that she is raising these controvertial topics, such as land ownership and cultural acceptance, because she does so without openly describing any malice or contempt on the part of the Maori against their agressors. She achieves this effect by using a sympathetic storyline from the point of view of a Maori family and displaying their weaknesses as well as their strengths. Their inability or lack of enthusiam to change matters gives us a glimpse into the effects of past occurrances which have left them without hope of justice or equality for the Maori people.

Patricia Grace uses point of view to explore the issues of cultural tension in New Zealand. Many of the characters have chapters which they narrate from their viewpoint. The sole character, a businessman called Mr Dolman, is used as an example of the lack of understanding Pakeha have of Maori tradition. Mr Dolman is almost a stereotype, as nowadays there are much less occurances of discrimination and many people are educated, to some extent, in Maori protocol and tradition. Mr Dolman's actions are rude and materialistic and they sway our opinions into siding with the Maori. He has few morals and he gives no second thought to the removal of the Maori from their sacred land, though it is difficult to determine whether he actually believes they'll be better off in government rented homes, or whether he is lying for his own profit. The point of view of the other characters throughout the novel also affects our point of view as the reader. The struggles the Maori face and have faced in the past become more realistic when they are not told in news reports or political arguments. The benefit of this fictional story is that it gives thoughts and feelings to something many of us know little about or have no experience of. We can see first hand how their lives are altered in terms of shelter, religion, culture and overall survival and understand their deep resistance against being integrated into Pakeha way of life. Had this book been written in the rd person we would not have been able to get as close to the characters, observing the occurances from a neutral point of view. Also, had the novel only been told from the point of 1 person rather than chapters devoted to each we would not have had the ability to see how life is affected for everyone and how each member of the family feels about Maori survival in a Pakaha dominated world.

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One very clever technique that Patricia Grace uses is personification. She uses this to give personality to the land itself, the Maori carvings and other inanimate objects. By using such phrases as 'the wood speaks', Grace helps us to overcome our obsession with the material and focus more on the spiritual. It is true that Pakeha are more ambitious in their aspirations than Maori, but it is also true that they are less satisfied in the results and practically become a 'slave to money'. The traditional Maori way of life is much simpler, relying on the Earth and their own hard work to provide for them. There are few disappointments of unattainable goals and survival is determined by the simplest of things. As is often repeated throughout Potiki 'everything we need is right here'. In this way we are led to perceive our own faults in that many Pakeha are dissatisfied with what their lives already offer them and continually crave more knowledge, power and money. It comes down to the 'third world' argument that many people in less fortunate countries are starving to death and would be priveleged to have lives as plentiful as we do. Using personification gives thought to the land, and brings characters to life in the carvings on ancestors located in the whare. It also helps to create a link between the past and the present.

The concept of time in Potiki is structured in a spiral shape. Past, present and future become one, life is born from death, and interwoven stories go full circle, rounding off at their origins, as does this tale in its entirity. While in Pakeha society we live only for the present and the future, Maori culture relies heavily on legend and tradition passed down from ancestor to ancestor. It is one way in which they maintain their cultural heritage. Respect is given to elders and the deceased, and memories become precious. Potiki itself is, in a way, a modern legend, and within it a number of old legends and stories are referenced as well, such as 'Rona and the Moon'. As Pakeha's we lack an obvious cultural background, our beliefs and traditions have digressed so much over the years. We have no timeless stories nor select tribes that make us a family. In a way we are at a disadvantage because we are from a much wider history and cannot truly determine our position. Maori culture is still so connected to its origins that there is a specific place for it in this world and lives are not governed by achievements. The Maori concentrate on the importance of extended family, caring for health and wellbeing, and preserving their way of life and they way of their ancestors so that they will not be forgotten.

Patricia Grace is a highly skilled writer who has used the above techniques and more to create a novel that makes us think about ourselves and our history. It reveals a hidden layer of the world and guides us in what is important in life and what is not, and at the same time it lets us see ourselves and our shortcomings for what they are, mere customs due to upbringing. We are not blamed or openly criticised for the prejudice faced by the Maori people, as that is now beyond our time, lost to the trivialness of Pakeha history, but we are informed of the occurances in the past and requested not to forget, for the sake of their customs which still holds some regard for the past.

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Compression

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The driving force to develop AAC was the quest for an efficient coding method for surround signals, like 5-channel signals (left, right, centre, left-surround, and right-surround) as being used in cinemas today. There have been algorithms for these signals in MPEG- for quite a while. Optimum efficiency, however, was not reached due to technical and historical reasons. Therefore, the set aim was a considerable decrease of necessary bit rate.

MPEG- AAC is the consequent continuation of the truly successful coding method ISO/MPEG Audio Layer- developed in Erlanger. The extensive co-operation with international partners and the insight derived from Layer- paved the way for this coding method, which is unique at this present stage. The appropriate incorporation of high coding gain and great flexibility opens up a wide field of applications. With sampling frequencies between 8 kHz and 6 kHz and any number of channels between 1 and 48, the method is well prepared for future developments in the audio sector. Compared to well-known coding methods such as MPEG- Layer-, it is possible to cut the required bit rate by a factor of two with no loss of subjective quality.

Like all perceptual coding schemes, MPEG- AAC basically makes use of the signal masking properties of the human ear in order to reduce the amount of data. Doing so, the noise is distributed to frequency bands in such a way that it is masked by the total signal, i.e. it remains inaudible. Even though the basic structure of this coding method hardly differs from the ones of its predecessors, a closer look into the details does reveal some new aspects worth paying attention to. The crucial differences between MPEG- AAC and its predecessor ISO/MPEG Audio Layer- are shown as follows

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•Filter bank in contrast to the hybrid filter bank of ISO/MPEG Audio Layer- - chosen for reasons of compatibility but displaying certain structural weaknesses - MPEG- AAC uses a plain Modified Discrete Cosine Transform (MDCT). Together with the increased window length (104 instead of 576 spectral lines per transform) the MDCT outperforms the filter banks of previous coding methods.

•Temporal Noise Shaping (TNS) A true novelty in the area of time/frequency coding schemes. It shapes the distribution of quantization noise in time by prediction in the frequency domain. In particular voice signals experience considerable improvement through TNS.

•Prediction A technique commonly established in the area of speech coding systems. It benefits from the fact that certain types of audio signals are easy to predict.

•Quantization by allowing finer control of quantization resolution, the given bit rate can be used more efficiently.

•Bit-stream format the information to be transmitted undergoes entropy coding in order to keep redundancy as low as possible. The optimization of these coding methods together with a flexible bit-stream structure has made further improvement of the coding efficiency possible.

After MPEG-1 and MPEG-, two standards only concerned about audio and video compression, a new standard called MPEG-4 is fast coming up. MPEG-4 is meant to become the universal language between broadcasting, movie and multimedia applications. It will provide additional functionality over simple media compression, like bit rate scalability, object-based representation, intellectual property management & protection etc., and is based on a rich tool set starting at bit rates as low as kbit/s for a single audio channel.

Scope and Features of the MPEG-4 Standard

The MPEG-4 standard provides a set of technologies to satisfy the needs of authors, service providers and end users alike.

•For authors, MPEG-4 enables the production of content that has far greater reusability and flexibility than is possible with individual technologies, such as digital television, animated graphics, World Wide Web (WWW) pages and their extensions.

•For network service providers, MPEG-4 offers transparent signalling messages suitable for many kinds of networks. For Quality of Service (Quos) considerations, MPEG-4 provides a generic Quos descriptor for different MPEG-4 media, enabling transport optimization in heterogeneous networks.

•For end users, MPEG-4 brings higher levels of interaction with content. It also brings multimedia to new networks, including those employing relatively low bit rate, and mobile ones.

•For all parties involved, MPEG seeks to avoid a multitude of proprietary, non-interworking formats and players.

MPEG-4 achieves these goals by providing consistent ways to

1.Represent units of aural, visual or audiovisual content, called media objects. These media objects can be of natural or synthetic origin; this means they could be recorded with a camera or microphone, or generated with a computer;

.Describe the composition of these objects to create compound media objects that form audiovisual scenes;

.Multiplex and synchronize the data associated with media objects, so that they can be transported over network channels providing a Quos appropriate for the nature of the specific media objects; and

4.Interact with the audiovisual scene generated at the receiver's end.

Errors are everywhere

Whenever digital data is transmitted in real-time, i.e. without the chance of re-transmission, whether in packet oriented networks (e.g. Internet) or in stream-oriented networks (e.g. digital broadcast systems or mobile communication networks), the receiver of this digital data will have to cope with transmission errors. In compressed audio, decoding of corrupted bit streams can lead to annoying artifacts that heavily reduce the audio quality. Those artifacts may even damage the listeners' ears or electronic equipment.

Thus, measures have to be taken to deal with such transmission errors. Four different approaches can be combined

1.Error Detection

adds cyclic redundancy codes to detect errors.

.Error Concealment

synthesizes lost parts of the audio signal.

.Error Protection

adds error correcting codes to recover corrupted data.

4.Error Resilience

makes the source code more robust to transmission errors.

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