Ethics in the Computer Age

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What Actions are Good and How Can we Know

Making decisions is a daily task for individuals. A decision that affects others or one's self and is deemed "worthy of praise or blame" is considered a moral decision (Edgar, 00, p. 15). When making a moral decision or taking action, one might wonder, "Are our actions good?" and "How can we know they are good, (the term "good" having the same meaning or connotation as moral, virtuous or right)? Philosophers such as John Stuart Mill, Epicurus, Immanuel Kant, and Aristotle, all have contributed to mankind, their view of what actions are good and by what guidelines one can know they are good.

John Stuart Mill, referred to as one of the fathers of Utilitarianism (the theory that consequences of an action determine its morality), claimed that

"The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness" (Barcalow, 1, p. 67).

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In other words, according to Utilitarianism, an action is deemed right or good if and only if it's results are the most beneficial in comparison to the results of the other choices available. Mill agrees, if an action produces more overall happiness in general considering all individuals possibly affected by the action, then the action is good. Noting the well being of others is key here. For example, say there were three individuals who were waiting for a heart transplant. One individual was a father of four children, CEO of a corporation and recently made a grandparent, the second being a young adult whose condition also involved cancer, and the last patient being a homeless individual with no family, or insurance. A heart became available that could be given to either of the patients. A Utilitarian choosing who would receive the heart would gather the information regarding which choice would have the most beneficial outcome. The homeless individual would probably continue to live a vagabond lifestyle that didn't necessarily benefit society, the young person with the cancer may die regardless of the transplant but the father, grandfather, and CEO would still be beneficial to society, his family, and grandchildren.

Another aspect of Mill's ethical theory involves his Harm Principle. In this principle, "All that makes existence valuable to anyone depends on the enforcement of restraints upon the actions of other people" (Barcalow, 1, p. 68). According to Mill, there are two fundamental freedoms. These freedoms are the liberty of thought and discussion and also the liberty to live according to one's own beliefs, values, desires, and preferences. That is, the liberty of "framing the plan of our life to suit our own character." Mill proposes that as long as one is not involved in actions that hurt or restrict another, particularly concerning his two fundamental freedoms, then those actions can be considered good. One argument against this aspect of Mill's theory is that it allows for too much freedom. What if a reputable individual made a statement claiming that alcohol does not impair one's judgment what so ever. This statement is false and dangerous and this action would not be considered good. Mill allows for the temporary restriction of expressions of thought that are threatening to public order and peace. He accepts and respects laws on libel and slander. Mill's response would be for that individual to rebut the claim publicly rather than restricting one's freedom of public expression, which in accordance to his moral code, is a good action.

Epicurus' main theories or teachings come from the understanding that "pleasure is the standard by which every good and every right actions is to be judged" (Magill, 10, p. 104). This is another example of Utilitarian ethical theory. In layman's terms, Epicurus professes if an action results in the feelings of pleasure in a person, it is considered good. The emphasis is that humans seek pleasure and avoid pain. Though there seems to be varying degrees of pleasure as far as how long it lasts or the intensity, Epicurus defines all pleasure as being the same and is that to which all human action strives for. The argument against Epicurus is obvious. Pleasures for one individual may not be the same for another. What if someone finds pleasure in riding extreme roller coasters at the local theme park? The individual with a fear of heights may not find the action of riding a roller coaster pleasurable in the least bit. Hence the action of riding one would not be good.

In contrast to Utilitarianism, Immanuel Kant's moral philosophy (Kantian) is based on duty as opposed to any moral law or right. This is also referred to as pluralism. Kant believed the only thing that can be considered unconditionally good is a good will. He states, "Nothing in the worldindeed nothing even beyond the worldcan possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualification except a good will." (Magill, 10, p. 6). An example here would be, if there were three different individuals who found a wallet and two of them turned it in for reasons such as guilt or fear of being caught with it, then the action of turning the wallet in is not necessarily moral or good. The last individual turned in the wallet out of a feeling of duty or sense of concern for the individual who lost the wallet. Now that person's action is deemed moral or good even though all three persons took the same action. An action can also be considered good even if the end results have been affected by outside forces. The point here is the acceptance of the "good intent" as being synonymous with the "good action" even if the desired results are not achieved. This theory contrasts the Utilitarian theory, which generally analyzes results or consequences of an action to know if that action is good or not.

Delving deeper into Kant's moral philosophy one can know better what actions are good by understanding and implementing Kant's categorical imperatives (objective principles). The first one is "Act only according to that maxim (rule or principle) by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" meaning that everyone should abide by this if it were law. Or more simply, would one want everyone doing the same thing? Kant implies that there are rational constraints on what we can do. (Spinello, 00, p. 18) For example, if one is running late and one decides it is ok to run a stop sign, would one want everyone else to do the same? By doing so, the purpose of having stop signs would be null and void. In this example one would have to forgo the decision to run the stop sign as that action has been deemed not good. The other two main categorical imperatives include "Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, always as an end and never as a means only" and "Act always as if you were legislating for a universal realm of ends" (Spinello, 00, p. 18). These actions, according to Kant will always produce actions that are good. The problem here is, one cannot always do anything. So it is only in theory that Kant's theoretical imperatives command "good actions." The extent to which maxims can be made is unending. It would be confusing to think one could universalize all maxims such as Be first to the grocery store. It is not logically possible but it does not mean that one should not be first to the grocery store if it were possible. If Kant expects one to "act in accordance with universal law and accept (or reject) any maxim according to its ability to be universalized, then knowing if one's actions are good or not should be "cut and dry." Obviously universalizing a maxim is not sufficient enough. On another note, it would also be difficult not to recognize the fact that one can choose to do the "right" thing for the "wrong" reason.

Aristotle and his "virtue ethics" focus on the good character of an individual. He believes that moral actions are a matter of habit and the only way to act virtuously is by constant practice of the good character. One also has to know the definition of a virtuous act. Aristotle's definition of a virtuous act is (1) know that what you are doing is virtuous; () choose the act; () do that act for its own sake; and (4) act according to a fixed, unchanging principle, or out of a fixed character (Edgar, 00, p. 71). When one "sees" what the right action is and one "chooses" that action, one can know that one's actions are good.

Aristotle also claims there is some end in particular for all of our actions, whether or not the action was done for the sake of our self (the ends) or for the sake of something else (the means). In these actions, reason allows us to choose the means best fitted to achieve the good end. There are certain actions and passions in which no means exists by its sheer badness. For example, spite and envy are two passions in which it would be impossible to be "right" in. And for an action such as adultery it would be absurd to consider any means merely on the fact that this action is innately bad. (Barcalow, 1, p. 8)

In conclusion, it can be seen that there are many differing ethical gauges that help determine what actions are good, moral, virtuous, or right. Though at times the differing theories are contradictory, there are valuable ethical principles put forth by Mill, Epicurus, Kant and Aristotle that are fairly conclusive when deciding if one's actions are considered good, and by what guidelines we can know they are good. Whether this is by contemplating the outcome of our actions, the pleasure received from our actions, or the overall benefit of others from our actions, these are all indicators of actions that are considered good.

References

Barcalaw, Emmett. (1). Open questions an introduction to philosophy.

California Wadsworth, Inc.

Edgar, Stacey. (00). Morality and machines. Massachusetts Jones and Bartlett

Publishers.

Jaspers, Karl. (1). The great philosophers vol III. Florida Harcourt Brace and

Company.

Magill, Frank. (10). Masterpieces of world philosophy. New York Harper-

Collins Publishers.

Spinello, Richard. (00). CyberEthics morality and law in cyberspace.

Massachusetts Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

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Gwen Harwood

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She practices a fugue, though it can matter

to no one now if she plays well or not.

Beside her on the floor two children chatter,

then scream or fight. She hushes them. A pot

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boils over. As she rushes to the stove

too late, a wave of nausea overpowers

subject and counter-subject. Zest and love

drain out with soapy water as she scours

the crusted milk. Her veins ache. Once she played

for Rubinstein, who yawned. The children caper

round a sprung mousetrap where a mouse lies dead.

When the soft corpse wont move they seem afraid.

She comforts them; and wraps it in a paper

Featuring Tasty dishes from stale bread.

(Gwen Harwood, Suburban Sonnet from John Leonard, Ed. Seven Centuries of Poetry in English. Fourth Edition. Oxford OUP, 18, p.7)

In Suburban Sonnet, Gwen Harwood uses the framework of the Petrarchian Sonnet, traditionally a romantic poem and juxtaposes this against the harsher reality of dirty dishes, morning sickness and lost dreams. This contrasting form makes more poignant the poems message of motherhood and the sacrifices required of women as wives and mothers. This period of Gwen Harwoods poetry often explores the personal from the perspective of women caught between

conflicting claims and responsibilities; between flesh and spirit; between reason and intuition; between intellect and feeling; between delight in life and the sadness and knowledge of time and mortality.

(Hoddinott, A. 11, p.111)

In addition, Harwood has been called a postmodern poet; Suburban Sonnet is a deliberate juxtaposing of a mixture of traditional styles in form and theme, such as Petrarchian Sonnet to express disillusionment. This and the following aspects of Gwen Harwoods poetry are in keeping with a post modernist perspective and often express concern with the bitterness of perceiving the unalterable destructiveness of time and the transience of physical beauty (Hoddinott, A. 11, p.60) The continuation of the self through children is a recurrent theme within Harwoods work, she acknowledges a satisfaction in knowing her children roamed the earth as physical symbols of her existence after she is gone. Her poem To My Children rejoices in the fact that we can renew ourselves and overcome the ravages of time in this way. Gwen Harwood claimed to be influenced by Wittgenstein a Post Modernist philosopher, whose complex point of view evolved from a perceived meaningless of all things to a belief in the certainty of all things, through this meaninglessness, he discovered purpose through being of service to others. Harwood herself, examines the pointlessness that can exist in motherhood in the earlier lines of this poem, to the closure where there is certainty of a mothers love for her children. Regardless of the pointlessness of the protagonists existence from an outsiders perspective, the mother in the poem does not lack purpose.

The dichotomy within Suburban Sonnet is one where a frustrated and physically compromised woman still manages to comfort those who are so dependant on her, so much so, that she has no time to comfort herself by fulfilling her own aspirations. However, the poem is not anti-motherhood, it is telling a womans story without the fairy tale images of domestic bliss that abounded in womens magazines of the time. These magazine themes are in reality, the myth, and the poem gives an impression that it is these magazines that are actually anti-motherhood. The bitterest twist in Suburban Sonnet is in line 14, where the dead mouse and its symbolic message of dead aspirations is wrapped in paper featuring the ridiculous message of tasty dishes from stale bread.

The use of Petrarchian Sonnet form, where the octave of the first eight lines, made up of two sets of four lines joined by the enjambment of line four, create the dramatic situation, with the sestet providing the resolution. The octave and sestet are not marked with as strong a division as in other Harwood Sonnets, they crash together in discord, and are indicative of the mood of calamity in this poem. Common features of the Petrarchian Sonnet, are …an idealised reverence for women; and an interest not so much in the beauty of the lady…but in the suffering of the lover, and the disastrous nature of love. (Croft J. Enlgish100 Advisory Materials p.). Harwoods use of a traditionally romantic style of sonnet exhibits a satirical black comedy. In a musical performance by Robyn Archer, the music of the fugue

the woman attempting to practise is under constant attack by the short staccato statements of the domestic accidents which repeatedly interrupt and break into the smooth continuous rhythm she is trying to establish.

(Hoddinott, A. 11, p.60)

The use of the fugue in this poem is in keeping with a theme within Gwen Harwoods work. She used the term fugal form to describe her work and her blending of music to poetic structure. In the structure of poem itself, the lines are broken in unexpected places and flow forward in others, this gives a disjointed feeling of chaos. The overall image is one a woman who is not at all idealised but is exhausted and ill. This woman is attempting to maintain a domestic harmony in a chaotic setting while her zest ebbs away.

For many reasons, Harwood chose to adopt pseudonyms for much of her poetry. In an interview in 180, she commented that the disguises of the late fifties and sixties were a way of retaining her privacy and ensured that her poetry was not prejudged by knowledge of its author.

Looking back at these poems written about twenty years ago I see myself behaving like a mother duck feigning a broken wing to draw enemies away from her secret nest. I have never been a confessional poet, and would not want to be…Why should people find different meanings in the text if they think the work is by the morning housewife in the broom cupboard and not the afternoon genius in romantic golden light?

(Hoddinott, A. 11, pp.86-87)

Gwen Harwood shows a continual resistance to the sureness of categories and her use of pseudonyms in her work was in keeping with a postmodern philosophical approach to her work.

Suburban Sonnet was originally published under her third pseudonym, Miriam Stone. Miriam was different to the previous two pseudonyms who were masculine, of Eastern European descent, and like Harwood were exiles from their place of birth. Stone was an imprisoned housewife, a mother, she allowed Harwood to express the point of view that

…it is those we love who make the greatest and most consuming demands and that therefore love and hatred are not opposite and mutually exclusive emotions but are two sides of the same reality and the same relationships…The conventional expectations fostered by society and womens magazines (tasty dishes from stale bread -line 14)..only make these impulses more destructive because they must be concealed under the conventional mask of loving wife and mother. The recurrent images of maiming and cannibalism in these (Miram Stones) poems are more painful and more blackly comic because they are the wounds delivered to and by the objects of love.

(Hoddinott, A. 11, pp.10-104)

Suburban Sonnet is an example of one of Gwen Harwoods most recurring topics during this period, where the nurturing of others is at the expense of nurturing the self. The language of this poem show the poet parodying the traditional topics addressed, usually by men, in the sonnet, where love, lust and adoration often abound. Here, the reader is given a domestic picture including bouts of morning sickness, the chaos of pots boiling over and capering children at the womens feet. Suburban Sonnet is an elegy, complete with a dead mouse in line 10, a symbol of the womans dead aspirations. As with other mothers in her work, this mother has been eaten alive by her children. Like Yeats, Harwood was preoccupied with masks and imaginary personalities, these characters took on the title of author for much of her work. These characters were not merely pseudonyms, they had detailed lives and were rounded characters separate to the work Harwood submitted under their names. Harwood was quoted in The Australian, as saying I like masks, I like belonging to a carnival (Hoddinott, A. 11, p.85) She felt the disguises she used in the fifties and sixties were a means of being able to express her feelings without being misunderstood or hurting those closest to her.

Music was an intrinsic part of Gwen Harwood's life, as a young woman, she aspired to becoming a Concert Pianist. Her first position after leaving school was as a piano teacher. In Suburban Sonnet, the she manages to use imagery and a disjointed rhythm to create a theme of discord and chaos within the structure of the sonnet with a musical deftness.

The mundane events presented in the poem examine a more complex perspective on an archetypal housewife's existence. There is feeling of resignation and exhaustion expressed that, no doubt Harwood had experienced. It is easy to understand why at the time Suburban Sonnet was written that Harwood chose to adopt a pseudonym. The need to protect herself, and her family in this way is an interesting commentary on the freedom of women in Australia during this era. Gwen Harwood's influences are diverse; her search for meaning is intrinsic in Suburban Sonnet as it explores the integration between the present and the past, the physical as opposed to memory and myth versus truth. Suburban Sonnet is a brave work, it confronts the myths of motherhood that abound in our society, and makes the attempt to separate the illusion from the real.

Bibliography

Hoddinott, A. 11, Gwen Harwood The Real and Imagined World,

William Collins Publishers Ltd, New Zealand

Croft J. 000, Enlgish100 Advisory Materials p.

Vonderosten, R. Date not on file (accessed 5 Jan. 001)

Definition of Post Modernism http//instruction.ferris.edu/vonderostenr/SF/post.html

References

Hoddinott, A. 11, Gwen Harwood The Real and Imagined World,

William Collins Publishers Ltd, New Zealand

Mattox, J. 000 (accessed 5 Jan. 001)

Post Modernism or post-Post Modernism

http//www.jonmattox.com/grids/ideas/postmodernism.html

Mishlove,J. 1 (accessed 5 Jan. 001)

The Integration of Wisdom and Knowledge

http//www.mishlove.com/transcripts/brown1.htm

Matthews, Frances Russell, Senior English Guide-Gwen Harwood, 000, Phoenix Education Pty Ltd, Albert Park

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Analysis of Daimler-Chrysler

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Analysis of DaimlerChrysler

Two of the worlds most profitable car manufacturers, Daimler-Benz and Chrysler Corporation have agreed to combine their businesses in a merger of equals. The transaction has created a global automotive corporation ranked in the worlds top car makers in terms of revenues, market after General Motors, Ford… The new company is called. It is leading by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Juergen E. Schrempp. It will be uniquely positioned to exploit the growth opportunities of the global automotive market in terms of geographical and product segment coverage. For example, Chrysler can improve its sells in Europe and Daimler-Benz in North America. With Daimler-Benzs non-automotive businesses, automotive electronics operations, DaimlerChrysler is a leader in transportation. First, I will talk about DaimlerChrysler environment, in 001 then I will speak about its capability with a SWOT analysis and at last but not least, I will recommend a future strategy.

The environment of DaimlerChrysler can be studied with a PEST analysis.

Political

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The Government's role is to stimulate the car industry, yet impose controls over the use of cars in order to provide an acceptable national infrastructure and the demanded perception of freedom. Governments can support carmakers because they provide jobs. For example, the United States (US) Government rescued Chrysler Corporation with a special Federal Loan Guarantee Program. Car makers have to deal with national governments about environment and security policies. DaimlerChrysler AG is organized under the laws of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Economic

It's the time for mergers. If companies want to stay alive, they have to grow fast and mergers are a good way. It's the motto "eat or be eaten". Car prices in European Union are likely to fall as the Euro. Europe's single currency will create greater price transparency. It will probably increase the merger mania. Economists and auto industries expect a slowdown in auto sales. Competition for market share is rising and put increased pressure on prices and margins. Price of fuel can disadvantage companies. Today we are faced with a great degree of overcapacity in the car industry running at 5%.

Social

During the last century, the car has transformed the lives of people in developed countries, providing a new degree of freedom and new opportunities for work and leisure. DaimlerChrysler has mainly a position in three automotive markets Europe, North America and Asia. These three markets are composed by a rich population. They can buy car easily. DaimlerChrysler sells a large range of products which touches all the class of the society. We can also say that the population changes it becomes older and more single. European and US markets are good for DaimlerChrysler because it's a source of national pride for Americans to buy Chrysler and for Germans to buy Mercedes. The United States of America (USA) and Germany are the most powerful countries in the world. The growth rate for motor industry in Europe is between % and %.

Technological

DaimlerChrysler must take care about new fuel which can change car making. It must also take care of the growth of the Internet because there is a lot of information about DaimlerChrysler and you can also make advertising. A lot of Money is spent in technology to preserve the environment and to secure the customer (e.g. airbag). They also develop entertainment in car like DVD lectors.

DaimlerChrysler has a large range of products in different markets. They product in each market luxury car (Mercedes), sedans, coupes, convertibles, minivans, jeeps, compacts, sport-utility vehicles, trucks, commercial vehicles like heavy trucks and buses. They also have Automotive Electronics which products automotive electronics applications.

The main competitors of DaimlerChrysler in its segments and markets are General Motors, Ford, Toyota, Volkswagen, Renault, Fiat, Peugeot-Citroen, Honda, BMW Rover… DaimlerChrysler is one of the five best car makers.

This is the environment where Daimler-Chrysler lives. Now, we talk about the strengths and weaknesses with a SWOT analysis and a product portfolio.

We're going to do the SWOT analysis. It will give us the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threat of DaimlerChrysler.

Strengths

The merger of Daimler and Chrysler brought strengths from both sides.

ɨ DaimlerChrysler is famous for its diversification.

ɨ They have a reputation for design and product development due to Chrysler Corporation

ɨ Reputation for innovation (e.g. Smart, A car)

ɨ Capacity of engineering and technology from Daimler

ɨ Luxury car image due to Mercedes-Benz

ɨ Good shares in European and North American markets

Let's see the different brands and their strengths in a product portfolio

Passenger cars & light trucks

Mercedes-Benz passenger cars are world renowned for their innovative technology and highest levels of comfort. It offers elegantly and technically brilliant products. Its youthfulness and dynamism are appreciated in all over the world.

The Chrysler Brand has a complete range of products with its sedans, coupes, convertibles, and minivans. Chrysler brand's focus is design, performance, fined-tuned athletic. Cars are not very expensive

The Jeep® Brand is one of the most widely recognized brands in the world because of its utility during the World War II and because it has four-wheel-drive capability combined with exceptional on-road handling and performance. It defines the sporty and versatile side of the sport-utility segment.

The Plymouth Brand combines contemporary styling, meaningful innovation and value in versatile products. It sells cars in three segments compact, sedan and minivan.

The Dodge Brand is popular in the USA and is recognized for its bold, powerful and capable image. It has a wide range of cars, minivans, sport-utility and trucks.

The Smart Brand is a new brand. It needs minimum road space. It is very useful for mobility in big cities during rush hours. But the car is still expensive.

The Commercial Vehicles and buses

DaimlerChrysler is one of the leaders in commercial vehicles and buses with four brands

DaimlerChrysler is the No. 1 in the world for trucks over six tons and buses over eight tons.

In Europe, DaimlerChrysler is represented by Mercedes-Benz for commercial vehicles and by Mercedes-Benz and Setra for buses. The Mercedes-Benz Atego is the leader of sells in the segment of delivery transportation. They also offer trucks for fire services or airport ground crews.

In North America, Freightliner Corporation is No. 1 for Class 8 heavy trucks. Sterling makes Class 8 trucks for construction, long-distance haulage and delivery.

It also exists Automotives Electronics which manufactures automotive electronics applications.

Weaknesses

DaimlerChrysler has several problems

It still has troubles about the merger between Daimler-Benz and Chrysler Corporation. There is a German dominance in Chrysler decisions which are unacceptable for Americans. So, designers, production people and executives have left Chrysler to join General Motors or Ford. It has an impact of the effectiveness of Chrysler. Furthermore, Chrysler's range of minivans, jeeps, and sport-utility vehicles are ageing.

DaimlerChrysler announced in 001 a loss of between €. billion and €.6 billion for Chrysler Brand

DaimlerChrysler try to lose less money by cutting jobs so the production will not be the same and will probably decrease. 6,000 jobs cut in America with Chrysler. Cut off 15% in the cost of materials and Chrysler claims that more than half its suppliers have already agreed to a programme of drastic cuts in costs over the next three years.

Smaller share in the market than General motors, Ford, in 001.

Mercedes shares some parts of cars that the consumer cannot see and he will pay more than usual.

Due to Business week "DaimlerChrysler still has not made money for its shareholders. The stocks trades near its low of 5 and is off about % in November 18"

The Jürgen Schrempp is the chairman of DaimlerChrysler and has a strong personality. He is unpopular.

DaimlerChrysler is not sure about the efficiency of Mitsubishi Motors Company which has a $ 5 billion debt. The CEO Jürgen Schrempp wants to cut the production of Japanese car maker by a fifth with a loss of ,500 jobs.

Opportunities

DaimlerChrysler try to enter into a new market like Asian market with Mitsubishi and Hyundai. It also tries to take share market in small cars market like Smart. Different vehicles can shares parts like engine blocks, batteries, gearboxes…

Threats

An impending recession can appear and consummation can decrease. A new entrant in the automotive market but it is impossible because automotive sector has no space for new entrants.

Investors don't trust the CEO Jürgen Schrempp because they doubt about him.

American car and light-truck market looks like sliding off its peak of 17.5 million to 16 million in 000 to around 001.

Now, we know the position of DaimlerChrysler in 001, we can find a strategy for the future.

I think it is not so important to try to grow faster by announcing alliances or mergers as much as you can. For DaimlerChrysler, it first has to consolidate Chrysler before trying to go in Asian market. If DaimlerChrysler does not take care of this company, it can lose it and the consequences will be horrible. The CEO Jürgen Schrempp must give more power to Chrysler Put an American manager at the head of Chrysler and increase advertising showing that Chrysler is an American brand even if it is German to increase share in the US Market. Automotive cars are a source of national pride.

They have to try to share parts between Chrysler and Mitsubishi because those companies sell the same class of products. So it's easier to share ideas and parts. Parts of Mercedes are more expensive.

The CEO has to reassure investors and shareholders.

A change in thinking is required from the just in case mentality of mass to the just in time requirement of lean production. They have to stop the overcapacity of 5%.

Please note that this sample paper on Analysis of Daimler-Chrysler is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Analysis of Daimler-Chrysler, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Analysis of Daimler-Chrysler will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Shouldice Hospital

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Recommendation

Shouldice Hospital has successfully created a hernia operation assembly line that is so effective that it makes every patient feel different and unique even though those patients are merely cogs in the Shouldice Hospital process. It is this irony that has made Shouldice Hospital a success, which is clearly evident based on its rate of "word of mouth" referral and the attendance at annual "reunion" parties. Without any form of formal marketing, the Company has its largest backlog of customers to date. Upon conducting a partial House of Service Quality analysis, it is abundantly clear that Shouldice Hospital's service attributes and capabilities are aligned with customer needs and expectations.

The greatest form of flattery is often said to be imitation. Shouldice Hospital's latest challenges arise from these imitators. Copycats are affecting the image of the Shouldice method of hernia surgery. Further exacerbating the problem, lack of capacity at the Shouldice Hospital is forcing patrons to seek out these hospitals that are imitating the procedures. Seeking out potential growth opportunities will help overcome this challenge. In the near term, management of the Shouldice Hospital must expand capacity by conducting surgeries on Saturdays. This expansion will allow the hospital to decrease backlog as well as decrease the number of patrons who defect to other hospitals. To implement this change in schedule, management must

1)Win the support of employees by clearly communicating the challenges facing the hospital

)Hire more surgeons and nurses to overcome increased work load concerns of employees

Rationale

Shouldice Hospital has built a highly profitable niche business by aligning customer needs and expectations with the service the hospital delivers. Exhibit 1, a partial House of Service Quality analysis, outlines the different expectations that hernia patients have as well as the controllable elements that the hospital can use to deliver to these expectations. From this analysis, which ranks the expectations of patients based on survey results, it is clear that reliability is a highly important factor for patients. For the hospital to be successful they have to invest heavily in training and equipment. The hospital has effectively delivered to this expectation through extensive research by Dr. Shouldice and the development of the Shouldice method. Furthermore, each surgeon develops expertise by performing nearly 600 hernia operations per year versus 5-50 for a surgeon at a general hospital. Due to these factors, the success rate of the hospital is much higher than general hospitals and potential patients are presented strong empirical evidence.

Similar to the Mayo clinic, the Shouldice Hospital strongly differentiates itself by delivering to the assurance and empathy needs of its patients as well. As seen in Exhibit 1, assurance and empathy are just as important as reliability to these patients. Patients at Shouldice Hospital are looking for a complication-free experience with staff members that are sensitive to their discomfort prior to the operation but also effective at inspiring exercise to shorten recovery time after the procedure. Not surprisingly, nurses spend an abnormally high amount of time counseling. In addition, from housekeeper to physician, the entire staff is trained to push patients to exercise from the moment the procedure is completed.

Similarly, the Hospital facilities were designed for the benefit of hernia patients. The vast estate with numerous amenities creates an atmosphere that is less like a hospital and more like a hotel. The overall space also allows for significant movement by patients. Carpeted hallways and specially designed steps reduce the possibility of falls. A real testament to the strength of the facilities is the lack of television in the hospital rooms. Patients are clearly entertained through other more productive venues.

Customers also play a pivotal role in creating an atmosphere that meets expectations. As a part of the Shouldice Hospital process, patients are encouraged to interact with each other and share experiences (Tea and Cookie hours, recreation rooms, etc.). These processes, as outlined in Exhibit , play a critical role in helping the hospital maintain consistent service quality. The machine-like flow allows for little variation and keeps employees on their toes. Furthermore, because the hospital is focused solely on hernia procedures, employees repeatedly practice the process thus creating the efficiencies that the hospital enjoys today.

Where to go from here

Shouldice Hospital has reached the pinnacle of efficiency and utilization out of its current service offering. The Company is at a crossroads as to how to continue growing while also overcoming some of the challenges it does face. The New Service Strategy Matrix in Exhibit shows some of the possible directions the hospital can take. As a large part of the Company's value proposition is the innovative Shouldice procedure, venturing into new service offerings either at the same location or at a new location would be a stretch. The current staff holds little medical expertise in any areas other than hernia. Furthermore, the Company's processes that are so effective for hernia operations (i.e. quick recovery/exercise process) may not be the easily transposed onto new services.

Despite exceeding customer expectations and creating an extremely efficient process, the Shouldice Hospital does face some new challenges. First, the Company's backlog is increasing. Responsiveness is a key driver of customer satisfaction (see Exhibit 1) and current backlogs are not allowing Shouldice Hospital to exceed customer expectations in this area. Second, copycat services are appearing and tarnishing the image of the Shouldice procedure. Both of these challenges are highly correlated. As more and more customers are seeking out the Shouldice procedure, the hospital's backlog is increasing. As the backlog is increasing, customers are searching elsewhere for similar services.

The solution to both of these problems is to expand capacity. The Hospital is considering three different proposals for expansion; add Saturday surgeries, add another floor to the hospital, and finally, build a similar facility in a new location. Developing a similar facility in a new location would require several of the doctors to relocate in order to maintain their level of service consistency. There is also a potential moral hazard issue at the other locations as employees there could live off the Shouldice name to garner profits without implementing a similar corporate culture driven by the machine-like processes. Furthermore, although there may be areas with a demographic population that could drive demand (i.e. Florida), the Company would have to work in a new legal environment that may hamper its abilities (i.e. malpractice insurance). Lastly, by opening a new facility, Dr. Obney's worries about not being able to maintain the right guiding principles would not be alleviated.

Building another level at the existing facility could over utilize the existing hospital's operating rooms and overburden the surgeons. In addition, building new capacity would require permission from the provincial government and would disrupt the existing flow of business until the expansion is completed. The costs of building the floor ($ million plus the additional cost of operations) have a lower ROI than the Saturday surgeries solution. The lowest risk proposal, therefore, is to add Saturday services. Based on this increase in workdays, capacity is estimated to increase 0%. By working Saturdays, the Hospital will increase the number of working days by 5. With an average of 7 surgeries (6850 surgeries per year / 61 working days), and average revenue of $10 per customer ($411 hotel stay + $450 surgery + $60 for assistant surgeon + $75 for anesthesiologist), an increase in 5 working days would result in increased revenue of $1.4 million with little disruption to the current business flow.

Clearly, many people within the company have concerns regarding a new Saturday surgery schedule. First, there is the concern that everyone's hours will increase. Second, Dr, Obney is worried that he will not be on premise to ensure that the process is running smoothly. Additionally, Mr. O'Dell is concerned that expansion would make it difficult to maintain the working relationships and attitudes. To alleviate all these fears, Dr. Shouldice must effectively communicate the challenges the Hospital faces and position expansion as necessary. Employees must understand that remaining status quo will lead to deterioration of the brand name by copycat firms and defections of potential patients to other hospitals (further exacerbating the problem). Dr. Shouldice must convince employees of Shouldice Hospital that their current work levels will not change with the change in schedules. Hiring and training the employees will be of paramount importance. Therefore, the expansion should be done deliberately, perhaps working surgeries every other Saturday to start. The deliberate start will also test the expandability of the Shouldice Hospital process.

Conclusion

Shouldice Hospital had been very successful at maintaining service quality by creating a very consistent process that nearly mirrors an efficient assembly line in a factory. Even more impressive is the hospital's ability to make customers feel as though they are receiving individual attention when in reality the patients are merely cogs in the machine. Together these two factors have allowed the Shouldice Hospital to consistently exceed customer expectations.

As the Company moves forward, if the implementation of the Saturday surgeries proves to be successful, then it would make sense to stretch the Shouldice Hospital process further by expanding the physical facilities and potentially exploring new locations in the United States. However, without first testing the malleability of the culture and process that Shouldice has developed; the Company must take baby steps to build capacity.

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The rise of the Ku Klux Klan during the early 1920s and its impact on American politics

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In this essay I set out to explore the reasons for the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the early 10s and see its impact on US politics at the time. Firstly, I will briefly outline the history and guidelines of the Ku Klux Klan, as it existed before 10s, as I believe it is important to understand the Klan's concept in the American history. And secondly, I will discuss particular Klan policies in its second version in 10s and means of influencing the whole US nation. The issue of the Klan was quite typical and one of the most controversial of the 10s, thus I would like to point out some interventions with the particular political situation of the era.

The Ku Klux Klan was originally founded as early as 1866 in the U.S. South after the Civil War, in years called Reconstruction and as a secret society of white Southerners. During the years of Reconstruction, the scattered American nation tried to restore its union, forbid slavery and help freed slaves to become rightful citizens. At that time, the Klan members frantically opposed the Reconstruction plans, did not at all approve the notion of equality of blacks to whites and opposed to the idea that the blacks should become landowners and have a vote in the elections and influence "the white man's country", the United States. The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan wore typical white grotesque costumes and hideous masks which were somewhat ghostly and frightening and insured its owners to remain in anonymity. As an impressive ritual, "they used to ride through the countryside mounted on horseback claiming to be the dead soldiers from Shiloh who had recently risen from hell to return to keep the Negroes in their rightful place." (Rambow)

Throughout the first period of its quite intensive existence, the Klan remained very much in the hands of local leadership with only nominal control. The government bills (so called "Force Acts") which were supposed to authorize the president to use military force and martial law against secret societies such as Ku Klux Klan had rarely any impact. The first version of the Ku Klux Klan was strictly southern issue and the secret organization officially disbanded in 186, but how it was in reality is another matter. "By January 186, Imperial Wizard of the Klan ordered the dissolution of the order. His explanation was that the Klan had become perverted in some localities and that public opinion was becoming unfavorable to masked orders…" (Ibid) But even after that the core of the Klan remained in the Deep South as a fraternal order, before its notion appeared handy as a tool of influence some fifty years later.

In 115, Colonel William Joseph Simmons, revived the Klan after seeing D. W. Griffiths film Birth of A Nation, which demonstrated the Klansmen as great heroes who were too good to be hidden in the pages of the books. Simmons made his living by selling memberships in fraternal organizations in a similar spirit that used to be Ku Klux Klan and as a result later announced a kind of "rebirth of the Klan." (http//www.pbs.org) Thus, for $10, one could become a secret member of the Klan and get a sense of belonging to superior white Protestant America. This version of Klan did not primarily focus its attention on blacks and their lynching, but broadened its message of hate to include Catholics, Jews and foreigners. The Klan promoted fundamentalism and patriotism along with advocating white superiority. They blasted bootleggers and promoted a return to clean living that should remain isolated from Progressive influences and rapid modernization of good old America in between the wars. Appealing to people uncomfortable with the shifting nature of America from a rural agricultural society to an urban industrial nation, the Klan attacked the elite, urbanites and intellectuals.

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However, its membership was not limited to the poor and uneducated on societys fringes. Mainstream, middle-class Americans donned the white robes of the Klan too. Doctors, lawyers and ministers became loyal supporters of the KKK. In Ohio alone their ranks surged to 00,000. As to the northern states, e.g. in Pennsylvania, membership reached 00,000. The Klan in 10s remained a secret society, but it was by no means isolated or marginalized. Their membership ballooned in the 10s. By the middle of the decade, estimates for national membership in this secret organization ranged from million to as high as 8 million Klansmen.

One of the particular social issues that KKK was concerned with was the fact, that black veterans were coming home from WW I and it was not possible for them to be put back to their original places. They migrated North in immense numbers and took the "places of white workers in the factories" and became to get more and more involved in the political and social life of the country. And there was very similar situation concerning the immigrants that were coming to the United States in great number up to 117, before the immigration was more or less unrestricted to anyone indifferently. Now it was believed, that the immigration of eastern and southern Europeans in particular created grave social problems. Finally, most new immigrants were either Catholics or Jews, and their coming aroused fear among Protestant Americans. And it was Ku Klux Klan, that begun a powerful campaign aimed at Jews and Catholics. Still, the Klan impulse was not usually a response to direct personal relationship or face-to-face competition, but rather a result of the sense that the moral code and the old religion were being ignored in wicked cities. Thus, the KKK of the twenties differs to the original version of the Klan; it didn't stand as much for hatred and racist violence, but rather to promote morality and rural chastity.

As to the impact on local and state politics, the Klan became in many aspects an important element. The Klan devised a strategy called the decade, in which every member of the Klan was responsible for recruiting 10 people to vote for Klan candidates in elections. In 14 the Klan succeeded in engineering the elections of officials from coast to coast, including several mayors from southern cities. In Colorado, Indiana and elsewhere, they placed enough Klansmen in positions of power to effectively control the state government. Known as the Invisible Empire, the Klans presence was felt across the whole country. As an effective instrument, they were using 10s-style advertising and tapping into the conservative mood of the 10s and white mainstream resentment of immigrants and opposing ideas, repositioned the Klan as an upholder of "traditional American values."

It must be pointed out, that the Democratic Party was highly divided in the 10s, especially over the issues such as immigration, Prohibition and Ku Klux Klan. Those problematic questions caused discussion not only within Democrats, but in the whole American society. The greatest influence on large scale politics took shape in connection with the US presidential elections of 14. The dispute crystallized not so significantly between the Republicans and Democrats, but within the Democratic Party alone. The party was divided basically to the Southerners, who either feared or supported Ku Klux Klan and were generally and historically anti-Negro and more conservative, and the Northerners who slowly begun to develop strength among black supporters. The tension reached its peak during the Democratic National Convention contest. "…former Secretary of the Treasury, William G. McAdoo had won the support of the South and West, and, although he openly repudiated it, the endorsement of the Ku Klux Klan." (Hofstadter, 64) His counterpart who had the support of Irish- and Catholic easterners and Midwesterners was governor of New York, Al Smith, a Roman Catholic opponent of prohibition and the Klan. When the candidate could not be decided among those two in the one hundred and third ballot, the convention turned to John W. Davis.

Another fight within Democrats was their platform for election. It concerned Smiths resolution to condemn Klan as un-American. This proposal failed by one vote of 54 to 54. Similarly, the Democrats could not agree over the issue of prohibition. On this figure we can see that the tension around Klan was really tight within Democrats and it was clear that the differences between Republicans and Democrats were insignificant compared to this.

To conclude this essay on Ku Klux Klan of the twenties, it must be said, that the KKK at that time differed fundamentally from its predecessor, at least concerning its matter. It is still important to see it as a necessary device of the particular period, when the society in the US was in turmoil. It was an era when two different world views came into collision, the traditional one and the one that was shaping the future, the progressive one - thus only the form of both versions of Klan had something in common. The fact that the KKK of the twenties operated on larger scale is given by the technological and social progress of the society (e.g. better media, transport) which helped to influence the nation as a whole together with its politics.

Link, Arthur S. American Epoch A History of the United States since the 180s. Vol. II 11-

141. New York, 168

Hofstadter, Richard. The Age of Reform From Bryan to F. D. R.

People & Events The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the 10s

http//www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/flood/peopleevents/e_klan.html

Rambow, Charles. Ku Klux Klan in the 10s

A Concentration on the Black Hills

http//www.geocities.com/crazyoglala/pahasapa_KKK10s.html

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Critical Thinking Styles and Forces of Influence

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INTRODUCTION

Within the organization of Kaiser Hospital and any organization, applied critical thinking skills provide an essential foundation for all effective planning, problem-solving, and decision-making activities. Employees who can analyze and reason effectively can help and communicate workplace problems (http//www.ohrd.wisc.edu/reg/catalog_course.asp?course_key=447). A recent problem I have heard spoken through upper management involves the negative and neglecting operations of our hospital. Much discussion has been recently filtered to the department managers regarding patient quality and satisfaction based on feedback provided by our Southern California region from our patient members. Although, solutions within the organization have yet begun, many questions came to mind when thinking of the pieces to frame this problem. I would like to discuss various ideas to frame this problem with specific forces of influence. Also, describe the types of thinking groups may have to influence and minimize the problem. In addition, discuss other avenues within our forces of influence, which may influence how the problem is framed, from our organization's culture to ethics. Finally, take what is applied, to answer this question, How do we accept each others differences and still get anything done?

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

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As already mentioned, there is a growing problem that has been addressed from upper management, facing all operations of Kaiser Hospital.

For the first time in my 11 years at Kaiser, have management directed the statement that discussed administrative staff employees down to the nurses and doctors, that all personnel have lost the intent and scope of the vision of Kaiser. According to Kaiser's marketing strategies, patient health care is there priority. Also, quality of care from physicians and staff strive to ensure the safety of patients while they are under the care of Kaiser (http//www.kaiserpermanente.org/locations/california/aboutkp/). After analyzing the statement from upper management and the statements based on our promising messages to consumers, describes how the "highest quality of care" advertised, may pose to some consumers and employees as a fallacy. The issues at hand are enough to identify, but is this the core of the problem?

I believe the core problem lies with the different agendas that are being introduced into the daily operations. It has become a very difficult task for the management team and the various members of its support staff to effectively run and maintain the hospital. This apparent loss of structure is tearing the communication of Kaiser's vision to a negative surface.

FRAMING THE PROBLEM

Based on the presentation of upper management, there is currently a wide array of concerns that are plaguing the hospitals ability to run and maintain its daily functions. These concerns have become so connected to our daily operations that the stability of the hospital has become threatened. There are three major concerns that need to be addressed and are currently effecting the internal operation of the hospital. The first major concern is the employees inability to follow the rules and standards set by the hospital.

Employees justify their actions by using their own personal set of opinions and standards, which they allow to dictate their individual routines at the hospital. They have single handedly set their own ethical and moral agenda, which they are pushing on to the patients of Kaiser Hospital in the form of how they are being treated medically. They have decided not to follow and uphold the mission statement that was put in place to achieve higher medical standards. The second major concern is the rising costs of running the hospital, coupled with an up and down yo-yo patient population. The hospital is experiencing an increase in cost from the previous year, which is making it difficult to provide the necessary care to its patients. The large percentage of unbalanced patient drops has affected the operating budget and is forcing cutbacks to the organization. The third concern is trying to balance these problems and brainstorm ways to handle the future cutbacks that will ultimately affect the existing staff with additional duties. Regardless of the reason surrounding the concerns or problems facing Kaiser Hospital, there needs to be immediate actions taken to put an end to the frustration, and to continue the steps of providing excellent healthcare to any and all patients.

FORCES OF INFLUENCE PLAN I

There are a variety of alternatives or influential methods that can be used to stop the abuses currently at the hospital. Before the alternatives are put into place, it is important that the decision makers use a systematic approach to problem solving. The contextual factor is the first part of the systematic approach in analyzing and stating the current problems (McCall, 10), which are occurring within the groups of Kaiser's staff. The second step in decision-making is to prioritize the urgency of those problems to be addressed as action items (McCall, 10).

All the problems that were addressed require immediate attention and decisive response; however, a system of setting priorities will alleviate the daunting task of tackling all of the problems at once.

FORCES OF INFLUENCE PLAN II

Another method to alleviating Kaiser's morale problem is taking action within the importance of our mission statement. By taking action, means providing group-thinking discussion and examining Kaiser's mission statement. This reviews the initial contract between employer and employee and also attempts to put an end to the problems that are facing the organization. The final step is to conduct a follow-up analysis to ensure that the changes are working appropriately and that all parties involved are following them and to address any issues that were raised during the problem-solving actions.

THINKING METHODS ALONG WITH OTHER FORCES OF INFLUENCE

There is no doubt the hospital needs to have the staff follow and uphold company policy and ethics. Logically thinking, the organization has implemented rules, regulations, a mission statement, and various other policies to protect employees and patients alike. These guidelines for behavior and conduct should be followed without question. A lack of discipline for those who violate the guidelines presents a barrier to increased morale and compliance. The organization needs to immediately enforce and punish those who are not willing to be in compliance with hospital policy. All employees should be notified of the organizations desire to immediately enforce the rules and regulations; those that are unwilling to follow will be subject to disciplinary actions, up to and including termination.

The identification of the other problems addressed, which are the rising costs of health care and the decrease in the patient population. The patient population should change once the organizations culture changes. The negative attitude that is present in the hospital staff that does not follow rules and company policy will eventually have a profound affect on peoples decision to choose the hospital for service. Using creative thinking strategies, the organization should attempt to reestablish the culture that has been successful in the past. The need may arise when the hospital may have to cut programs and employees, in an effort to run leaner. Finding creative ways to choose the programs that need to be cut will be the key to running at a lower cost. The fixed costs should be cut instantly if they are not being utilized or running below the required profit margin. The organizations thinking should direct the facts of their existing economic status of running as a not-for-profit and operate according to the balance sheets and budget.

ANSWER TO DILEMMA

Now, with all that has been shared in identifying the problems with morale in the hospital, how do we accept each others differences and still get anything done? It is reasonably possible and natural to examine the problems mentioned in various ways of thinking. The immediate response is to believe those that want to make a positive difference within themselves, will take the initiative to make a positive difference for their organization. This idea will protect employees in their jobs and promise the organization the provisions of their service. Therefore, providing a turn around in patient quality and satisfaction and taking those differences within each other to work for each individual and the organization they work.

CONCLUSION

Within Kaiser, and any organization for that matter, rapid changes can occur and be identified by using applied critical thinking and problem resolution actions. Our forces of influence encourage us to use a positive approach to fix the problems at hand. Kaiser's upper management, I believe, have identified the core of the problem of employee morale, rising costs and patient decline. My idea of framing the problem and using various influences of thinking may be an idea coming from one person but a great influence to other staff in finding a creative solution. Regardless of the reasons surrounding the concerns or problems, Kaiser Hospital must take immediate action by communicating the processes of problem resolution to all staff so the end result complies with providing excellent healthcare to our patients.

Schutt, D, Director. Office of Human Resource Development. Retrieved July 8, 00 from http//www.ohrd.wisc.edu/reg/catalog_course.asp?course_key=447.

Kaiser Permanente 00. Retrieved July 7, 00 from http//www.kaiserpermanente.org/locations/california/aboutkp/.

McCall, M. W., Jr., & Kaplan, R. E. (10). Whatever It Takes The Realities Of Managerial Decision Making (nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ Prentice Hall.

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Cultural Ethics

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The question of ethics has been pondered throughout history. Both religious and secular leaders and cultures have attempted to define ethical behavior. But, whether through belief in G d or belief in a society of another sort, man has never satisfactorily answered the question of what is ethical. We can never know if our behavior is ethical, only believe it to be so from what we have learned from society and our ancestors. Culture extends to and affects all things; as we evolve, so too does the way we relate to the world and each other. Therefore, even the notion of ethics, an unwritten, universal code for behavior, is a product of agreements, often tacit and subconscious, between the members of a culture; culture is, in turn, a function of the changes individual humans have undergone.

As stated by Ken Wilber, testosterone give men a "[screw] it or kill it" impulse. Therefore, when men were less evolved, taking whatever woman you wanted was all right. Men could not control those impulses, and so the ethics in such primitive societies are things to make us blanch. In later societies, if a man attempted to steal whatever woman he wanted, he could lose his life. Then, in the "glorious" medieval period, it was a noble's prerogative to have whatever girl he wanted from within his demesne. Now, no matter how rich or powerful you are, it is considered unethical to attempt any such thing. We have even written laws that prohibit any actions society deems unethical.

Historically, ethics has changed many times over the years, with the rise and fall of various religions and secular regimes. For the Greeks, ethics was a very low priority (at least in our eyes). The Greek gods were philanderers, thieves and miscreants of all sorts, always squabbling amongst themselves. With the rise of more secular philosophy in ancient Greece, Socrates spread his theories that man could find anything through self and world reflection. He was followed by Plato, who taught that their were two kinds of knowledge empirical, that is, testable, and that of reason. Any man who could find his own truths through "reason" had the right and duty to impose hi ideas on other men, because such thinkers were rare and special. Then came Aristotle, who taught that all such matters as ethics were universal truths, unchangeable by men. He taught that the best we could hope to do is discover those universal truths and practice them, thus becoming ethical people through the ethics programmed into ourselves.

In China, with Confucius, Chinese philosophy was more on the matter of social instead of individual ethics. If one found the Dao, or true path, de, or virtue, would follow as a result of finding this truth. Confucius taught that ethical codes existed from long before and were still applicable in his own time, and that the ethical codes determined an individual's duty to his or her society.

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Hindu ethics, largely expounded in the Upanishads, tended towards much more metaphysical pursuits, leaving the problems of an individual's duty to other, and more secular texts such as Manu's Law Books. Those codices laid down laws as to the social responsibilities of people of certain classes. Dharma, moral and social order, is a function of class. Depending on where you are in the social strata, your code of ethics was different.

Buddhism, founded by Siddharta Gautama, places great emphasis on the idea of simplicity. Buddhist ethics revolve almost completely around the motives for actions taken if something is done for a bad reason, it is bad itself; if something is done for a good reason, it is good. However, the consequences of the actions also count. So, Buddhism espoused neither a "the ends justify the means" philosophy, nor a philosophy where only intentions count. Buddhism had only five core laws abstain from killing and hurting living creatures; from stealing; from wrong indulgence in sensual pleasures; from lying; and from taking intoxicants.

The core belief of Jainism, another sect originating in India, is that all sentient life is sacred, and should be treated as such. Therefore, one should not harm any living thing, as all life has a purpose. Jainism also stressed truthfulness and disregard for material possessions.

Both Judaism and Christianity, while different in many fundamental ways not visible to many people, espouse a desire to be as close to G d as possible. The way to achieve this, as taught by both religions, is through a strict moral code and humane treatment of all living things, especially humans. There are many other laws, but none as important as the ones detailing the interactions between individuals in a community and between people and G d. There is no philosophy of simplicity, or of disregard for material possessions, or the belief that only extreme introspection can reveal the truths of the universe; at their cores, both Judaism and Christianity declare that the only way to know the truth is through the interaction of the body and spirit with G d.

Islam stresses an absolute deference to the will of G d, or Allah, that is subject to no interpretation by man, although there are several branches of Islam. The words of Allah, as heard and written by the prophet Muhammed, known as the Qu'uran or the Koran, provide the basis for moral order in Muslim life. One of the Muslim ideals, tied into the strong sense of culture and society created by the adherence to the words of the Qu'uran, stresses the redress of all social wrongs that impede devotion to Allah.

During the Renaissance a new philosophical system arose, that of Humanism. Humanism placed great emphasis on the deeds of the individual, without regard to metaphysical constructs such as G d or the soul. Although the views of various humanists varied widely, from the belief that men were inherently good to the belief that men were inherently evil, they all believed that man and man alone was responsible for the good or evil in the world, whether through individual deeds or through the construction of, according to Rousseau, "inherently corrupt systems" like society.

Utilitarianism, expanded by both Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, was the philosophical system that the only way to tell if an action was ethical or not was to observe the results empirically. Bentham said that an action was ethical if it caused the least pain and the most pleasure for the most people in the society. Mill, while agreeing that something that causes the most pleasure and the least amount of pain for the most people was a good thing, that not all questions of ethics could be solved that way; instead, society should adopt and uphold a common moral law instead of always judging by the absolutes of pain and pleasure. Mill believed this way because Bentham's method left no room for people that were very different from others in society; Mill believed that such people were important to society.

Deontology, first championed by Immanuel Kant, states that being ethical can only be achieved by adherence to a standard set of compulsory morals; he stated that to find a moral law we should imagine ourselves on the wrong end of a ruling and expand morality from there.

Marxism, as theorized by Karl Marx, did not lay down a set of ethical laws, but rather dealt with ethics as a tool of the ruling class to oppress the working class. Therefore, Marx believed that only when the working class was free of the ruler ship of the "bourgeoisie" could a real set of ethical laws be devised.

Existentialism, as laid down by Sartre, was the idea that all accepted conventions and rules, secular or religious, were false and the only person who could determine what was right was oneself. Sartre declared that all people have the freedom and responsibility to create themselves in whatever image they deem right, and whosoever does not take the freedom and responsibility was untrue to themselves. Sartre believed in no codes of ethics but those he could discern with his own intellect, and stated that the only way to find truth was to formulate and implement an idea and suffer whatever consequences may follow.

Post Modernism deals with the idea that there are no universal truths, only human ideas that are no truer than any other human ideas, that truth is a totally relative thing. Even things like murder being wrong are subject to debate as a human truth, not a universal one, according to Post Modernism. Even the ideas of free will and reason are not universal truths, but rather human truths because they are human constructs. Therefore, there is no wrong or right, but only what's wrong or right for each separate person.

Social Ethics deals with the minimum requirements to balance social needs and individual needs. According to John Rawls, ethics is only a tool to achieve this balance, and should include liberty, acceptance of difference, and establishment of a basic protection against poverty. Alasdair MacIntyre, however, felt that ethics should concentrate less on individuals and their moral decisions and more on the community and its moral health and welfare. He felt we should focus more on what people should be rather than what they should do.

So, from the wide variety of opinion engendered in the many different philosophical systems regarding the idea of ethics, one can see that, though many different systems claim to have the truth about ethics and morality, not all can be. Ethics is the code detailing how an individual relates to a society, and while all of the philosophies throughout time have dealt with ethics in that wise, the explanations all differ so much that the only thing that can be told is that each culture where a specific idea about the truth of ethics originated influenced the originators.

Bourke, S.J. Vernon A History of Ethics (Garden City, New Jersey Doubleday, 168)

MacIntyre, Alasdair A Short History of Ethics (New York Macmillan, 166)

Wilber, Ken A Brief History of Everything (Boston Shambhala Publications, Inc., 16)

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