Human resource management

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Human Resource Management (HRM) is now a term which is now widely used, yet loosely defined (Guest, 187). So, what is HRM? What does it mean and what is its focus? "The focus on HRM is on managing people within the employer employee relationship. Specifically it involves the productive use of people in achieving the organisation's strategic business objectives and the satisfaction of individual employees needs." (Stone, 18) Derived from this and certain theories addressed later in this research, HRM in the field of organisational behaviour engages a set of policies designed to maximise organisational integration, employee commitment, flexibility and quality of work. With this perspective, and rapidly changing trends, it is no surprise and even merit that Industrial Relations (IR) are starting to play a minor role in organisations today (Guest, 187).

Yet how can one define such a broad area of an organisation? There is no one theory on Human resource management, and certainly not enough 'evidence' to suggest its benefits within a competitive market force, especially gaining competitive advantage for a specific company (Clark, Winchester, 14). This must be done through analysis and evaluation that may be conducted through various forms of communication, for example; confidential employee questionnaires that don't disclose the employee's name for a true indication of staff morale, or cross team meetings to analyse certain aspects of staff outlook for their company. Ultimately, a harmonious and 'happy' workplace whereby staff actually are excited in a sense to actually go to work and sit down at their desk.

The term 'Human Resource Management' is certainly not new in the workforce, but in recent years has been addressed in depth and with new trends there has been a shift to focus on the staff, and thus is becoming almost 'fashionable'. Many believe that this open approach to HRM can increase competitive advantage for a firm. There are beliefs that competitive advantage can best be achieved as Guest (1) put it "by seeking improvements in the management of people and organisational structures; in other words, through better utilisation of human resources."

Bearing this in mind, there are two functions that are necessary to note when describing HRM. These are the 'legal' and ethical compliances within an organisational structure that the firm, including managers and staff, must adhere to. It is essential that HR managers have a basic understanding of the law of employment and what is considered 'illegal' as opposed to 'legal'. In any legal relationship, there are mutual obligations for both parties, and the arena of employment is certainly no exception (Arthur, 14). It is only when these mutual duties integrate successfully with the objectives and mission of the company that productivity levels will supposedly improve.

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There are many things that must be considered when entering into a discussion on legal matters within HRM, ranging from contracts between certain parties, to Occupational Health and Safety requirements which must be fulfilled as preventative measures must be taken for health and well being of employees in any field (Connor, Ulrich, 16). For example, Ghetto shoes implement a strategy that involves using a specific type of ladder with strong ground support when looking for boxes on high shelves, preventing any damage that may ultimately be quite harmful to employees. Another may be safety gear and helmets when working in a construction site where there may be falling debris that could injure someone quite badly, and thus have implemented signs allowing employees to realise the importance of such matters.

One major issue in the law is that of 'awards'. These are certain contracts with employees, set by state and federal industrial relations, outlining the minimum terms and conditions that an employer must provide for the employee, this includes conditions such as rates of pay, hours of work, types of leave (holiday, sick) and termination (Armstrong, 1). Yet, it is at the employer's discretion whether they would use these minimums or decide to increase that standard. Note that employees may have a specific contract designed for their specific job, which would exceed the award in various ways, and are to be discussed confidentially between the parties involved.

Discrimination is also a huge factor in the legal aspect of HRM today. According to Stone (18) discrimination involves "making a distinction between individuals or groups so as to disadvantage some and advantage others." This may be direct or indirect. Direct being an obvious form whereby a woman may be terminated purely on the basis of her gender. Indirect is more when a company makes a promotion dependant upon five years continuous service, which is discriminating against women who take time off to handle newly born babies, therefore being unable to stay at work consecutively. A terrific example derived from Stone was O'Neill v. Burton Cables Pty. Ltd. whereby the plaintiff had undergone a medical examination just before he received the title of 'purchasing officer'. He was unable to have the job, as he had an acute back condition due to gardening in his younger years. Yet, under the Equal Opportunity Act 184 this act was found discriminatory as refusing to employ the man had meant he was treated less favourably than someone who did not have a stiff back. As it is shown here, along with millions of other similar examples, there is a fine line between what is seen as 'fair' and 'unfair'.

This is just one of the many legal aspects within human resource management, and certainly more legal aspects will be covered, yet the ethical factors are also extremely important as well. These mainly include cultural differences within the workforce, and differences in race, gender, religion, etc. Although these heavily comply with legal aspects, it is recognisable that regardless of this, there is still that responsibility of managers and employees alike to be 'ethically correct' which may involve hiring a person of a certain race, despite their particular beliefs (Boxahh, 11). Furthermore, hiring someone that is suited for the job, with the qualifications to exceed levels expected, even though they may have a wheelchair or a different colour skin. In the rapid movement towards equal opportunity for all, this is an absolute must for firm's today, and the managers should have open minds to all, as it may actually be more effective for the company hiring this person over another. There is limited amount of information concerning the ethical practices of HRM, and it is found that it is more a direct objective by the company, and the employees within that company that determine what is 'ethically correct' (Armstrong, 1).

There are many functions within HRM that may determine structures, morale and overall competitive advantage within the specific industry. These include; HR planning, Job Analysis, Job Design, Recruitment, Selection Career Planning and Training and Development. Specifically, the selection process and training and development activities will be focused on within the retail industry in Australia. Yet, what is selection? What is training and development?

Selection is the 'hiring and retention of key human resources' (Stone, 18), and strategically an organisation's ultimate success depends on the best applicants being selected. Jobs and people must be matched to ensure employee satisfaction and effectiveness. Some issues surrounding the selection policy are that of the EEO, the quality of the people, the source of people, the manager's roles and selection techniques implemented to gain all the positives out of employees (Connor, Ulrich, 16). The costs of poor selection are direct, whereby an employee may not compare probationary period, and indirect, which involves disruption of work routines, loss of investment and difference in performance levels, all of which affect a firms' competitive advantage. Many tests can be taken by potential employees at a company in the selection process, which include employment tests, where the company asses' the match between applicants and the job's requirements. Interest tests, where there is a comparison in the applicant's interest patterns with successful people in a particular job. Aptitude tests measure special abilities that are required in specific jobs, alongside intelligence tests, which measure applicants IQ. Last but not least, personality tests which measure the basic aspects of personality, all of which are reliable, yet only an indication of the persons ability, and if done correctly can influence a firm's competitive advantage (Ulrich, Beatty, 001).

Then comes the interview stage, where certain steps may be taken to improve interviewers' decisions. These five steps entail (Keenoy, 17)

1. Developing selection criteria

. Determining how the criteria will be assessed

. Developing and interview guide

4. Training for the interviewer

5. Monitoring their effectiveness as an interviewer

Once this is assembled, one must bear in mind the question types that adhere to the law, and are ethically correct. An interviewer must not be vague and ambiguous, too direct, or use trick questions to 'catch' the interviewee out on a limb. Certain models have been implemented to determine who is right for the job, including the most commonly used model - the compensatory approach where the manager considers all of the selection data for the candidates who have successfully passed the initial screening (Legge, 15). Thus, allowing a better overall impression of the applicant. Another model is the Person-Job match, where the company matches the whole person with the whole job. These models along with others can be successful, if used in the correct manner, and will be outlined with a specific company for a more in depth analysis.

Yet, training and development is also extremely important when assessing the firm's competitive advantage in their specific industry. So, what is training and development? It is the development of existing employees, the induction and orientation of new employees, the training of existing employees to teach new methods within and organisation and the education of employees to ensure overall competence, and thus achieve competitive advantage (Pfeffer, Veiga, 1). Theories have been applied when dealing with training and development, three of which are applicable in every situation. Firstly, the Neo Human Capital Theory, whereby the company will train to develop worker flexibility and responsiveness (Barney, Wright, 18). Secondly the HRM Theory, where training is used to increase employee commitment, and thirdly, the Learning Companies Theory. This is said to promote individual and organisational learning to make them more adaptable to change (Purcell, 15). Benefits of these mindframes are huge for firms. As it increases performance improves flexibility and adaptability within the workforce, allows career development, which entails promotion, and allows the company an all round better skilled workforce Sisson, 14). Programs may be implemented to gain a wide variety of training and development, which may be on the job, such as job rotation or traineeship, or on site which may entail interactive video training. McDonalds actually implement this for all new staff with the first shift solely based on videos and front counter training. Off site training where employees may attend a seminar or formal course to enhance knowledge of the industry is also another form. Yet just like any other activity, it must have a plan, where the company outlines objectives of training schedule, implements them, assesses them, them if need be, adds to the already existing format (Peters, Waterman, 18).

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Critical Review

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In the article entitled Human resources practices survey results, a report done by Human Resources Development Canada and Statistics Canada is examined. The material within the article is relevant to organizational behaviour. There are many strengths and few weakness regarding the ideas presented that can be found. In my opinion, this article is very effective, even though there are some components included that are not as convincing as others. According to the results of this report, the best way to help employees adapt to environmental, organizational, and technological change is by introducing training, variable pay, and employee involvement. It claims that in order to facilitate environmental changes, employers must upgrade the employees' skills. It also states that adaptation and taking advantage of organizational and technological changes are done by linking pay to performance. The report also explains that by giving employees a better sense of how to make a difference at work, productivity gains will be reinforced for the employer. I agree with some of the points that are made, however, I also disagree with others. Moreover, I have alternate suggestions to help employees adapt to changes.

This article is divided into three sections. Each section relates to the content of this course. The first section explains why employees need training when a change is introduced in the workplace. According to Human resources practices survey results, training must be provided in the upgrading of employees skills when an environmental change is initiated to help with the adjustment of the new environment. Similarly, in the textbook Canadian Organizational Behaviour, it states that training is important when change is instigated because the employees need to be taught the new knowledge and skills that are required for the job (484). This being an event which occurs in the workplace proves that this particular section of the article is very relevant to this course, since we learn about various situations having to do with the workplace. Eventually we will be learning about environmental changes in this course and the text includes training as a process that is important when introducing change (484). The second section of this article relates organizational and technological change to variable pay. In chapter six of the text Canadian Organizational Behaviour, reward practices are discussed. Both the text and this article state that individual rewards are the most popular reward practices used. While the text goes on in great detail about the positive and negative aspects of each type of reward, the article just briefly mentions a few types of the most common rewards. In the final section of the article, employee involvement practices are considered. When an employee feels that he or she has made a difference at work, in return, productivity gains will result for the employer. The article reveals that certain practices, including multi-tasking, teamwork, and job rotation, will do just this. Altogether, this article is relevant to organizational behaviour since it discusses issues which are taught in this course.

The overall effectiveness of the article Human resources practices survey results is adequate. Even though this article is based on a survey, I find that it convinces the reader that the results found are indeed valid. The data is laid out neatly in a format that includes headings for the different topics. This makes the article very easy to follow along and understand. The validity of the information given is very believable in that it is supported by survey results and examples. Since the article is based on a survey there can be positive or negative interpretations of its effectiveness. If the reader believes the results, it is most likely because he or she views the results as being valid, since they are facts and can not be argued as being false. On the other hand, readers may see the results as being invalid because they believe that surveys can give false information. This survey only received responses from a sample of the world's population. Just a fraction of the population was surveyed giving an incorrect judgement of businesses and employees. Also the respondents could have lied or given biased answers on the survey. The fact that this article is based solely on a survey is why it may be interpreted as being ineffective.

This article has its strengths and its weaknesses. One strength is that every idea that is presented is backed up by other articles that I researched. I could not find one article that contradicted this article. Another strength is that both sides are given. The examples in this article are not biased. They show the situation from both angles. The author uses examples to clarify statements that may be a little unclear. This enables the reader to have a better idea of what the author means. One thing that the author repeatedly does is refer to information as it was taken from the survey. For example, instead of formatting the results of the survey in a format that implies it is simply an opinion of the author, the author continually makes note that the results came from the survey by stating "the survey results indicate that…" or "in the survey…".

The author just lists the statistics found from the survey, assuming that the reader knows what he means. This is a weakness because, at points like these, the reader will feel lost. The author also briefly mentions the different types of rewards. I think that the article would be a lot stronger if the author had elaborated on these types of rewards. In doing so, the reader would understand what each employee would receive according to the reward practices. This would then allow the reader to either agree or disagree with the statistics. Another weakness in this article is that the training and variable pay sections are not explained in as much detail as in the section titled "Employee Involvement". I know that I would have been interested in learning more about the variable pay section.

My position on this article varies from point to point. The first key point in the article claims that when there is an environmental change, the employees must receive training to upgrade their skills in order to adjust to the transformation. I somewhat disagree with what is said here. I work at a golf course in the kitchen and in the pro shop. I help customers, cook, and clean. When I started I did not go through any training. I learned by watching other employees and just figuring it out on my own. I can also see how this point is true though. In a company that uses heavy and dangerous machinery training is necessary. When a new piece of equipment is brought in to the company, it would be hazardous to not enforce training. I believe that training is a good idea, but it is not necessary in all cases. A positive aspect of training, as indicated by the Human Resources, Training, and Labour Relations Managers and Specialists article, states that satisfaction of the job and working conditions along with improved skills will result from training. It also states that "training offers a way of developing skills, enhancing productivity and quality of work, and building loyalty to the firm. Training is widely accepted as a method of improving employee morale…"(Bureau of labour Statistics, ). Another advantage is that employees will break routines by learning new role patterns with the help of training. One problem with training is that it can be expensive and time consuming (McShane, 484). I agree with one key point in the article that states, "The report shows a strong link between training and job satisfaction" (The Worklife Report, 6). In this course I have learned that job satisfaction increases job production. If employer sponsored training were provided, I see how training would increase job satisfaction. Employees would have the correct knowledge of how to do their job most efficiently and effectively, therefore lifting job satisfaction. I agree with the statement "individual incentives, such as bonuses and commissions, are the most popular, followed by merit-skill-based pay" (The Worklife Report, 6), however, if I were an employer I would chose a different reward practice. As said by Kevin Herring, "A bonus program will encourage employees to focus on the things that will help them get that bonus…but it may result in workers doing what they need to get the bonus at the expense of other needs" (Herring, 1). I would suggest a gainsharing or profit sharing plan. These reward systems will not only motivate employees to work more efficiently, but they will also reduce costs of production. Skill-based pay also improves performance in the work place. As said in the article, Who Uses Skill-Based Pay and Why?, "The adoption of skill-based pay was associated with employee-involvement efforts that produced improvements in product or service quality and in competitiveness" (Lawler, Leford, Chang, ). I think that Steven Kerr does a good job of summing up how rewards systems work "whether dealing with monkeys, rats, or human beings, it is hardly controversial to state that most organisms seek information concerning what activities are rewarded, and then seek to do (or at least pretend to do) those things" (Kerr, 1). From this I realise that reward practices are the most effective way to increase production by employees. Another key point that I agree with reports that job rotations, multi-tasking, and teamwork will give the employees a feeling of making a difference at work. This, in turn, will increase productivity within the company. In this course I have also learned that if employees have a sense of making a difference at work, then they will be more productive. In the text it says that job rotation will reduce boredom in the job, help employees have multi-skills, and reduce occurrences of recurring strain injuries (18). I also agree with the article I have chosen where it claims that mostly large firms use employee involvement practices (EIPs). Like that article says, "Small establishments have closer contact and better communications with their employees by virtue of their small size and so do not need to implement these practices (EIPs)" (The Worklife Report, 6).

The article I have reviewed is relevant to this course because the three sections, training, variable pay, and employee involvement, relate to the course material. Overall, I found this article to be effective because it convinces the reader that the information is valid. There are both strengths and weaknesses in this article. Some strengths include the way the material is presented and how it is easy to understand. A weakness is that some words are not defined, which leaves the reader feeling lost. I agree with most of the key issues in this article. I think that it would be a good idea for employers to read this article and compare it to how their company runs.

Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 00-0 Edition, Human Resources, Training, and Labor Relations Managers and specialists, on the internet at http//www.bls.gov/oco/ocos01.htm (visited October 0, 00).

Herring, Kevin, president, Ascent Management Consulting, Tucson, Arizona, Jan., 00.

Human Resources Practices Survey Results, The Worklife Report; 001; 1, 4; Business Module pg. 6.

Kerr, Steven, On the Folly of Rewarding A, While Hoping for B, The Acadamy of Management Executive; February 15;

Lawler, E., Ledford, G., Chang, L., "Who uses Skill Based Pay, and Why?", Compensation and Benefits Review, 5 (March-April 1) pg. -6.

McShane, Steven, Canadian Organizational Behaviour, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, Toronto, 18.

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European competition law

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on european competition law. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality european competition law paper right on time.

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.1Competition Law

This chapter will firstly explain competition law of the European Union, with its objectives on how to provide a sufficient system for all Member States undertakings operating within the EU. In order to be able to explain in detail how competition operates within the markets, theoretical imput is looked at, to show the extreme consequences of the market at either end with and without the regulations governed by competition law. A large part of this chapter will lend itself to the detailed explanation of vertical agreements, in their various formations, benefits of and their potential harmful effects, leading to a discussion on whether vertical restraints are necessary in achieving the main competition policy objective. A brief introduction of Article 81 is made in relation to its application of vertical restraints.

1. Competition Policy

The overriding objectives of Competition law concern the efficiency between producers, suppliers and retailers, the protection of the consumer and small and medium sized firms as well as creating the integration of a single market between all Member States. However, these objectives can be unattainable due to other policy objects such as the safeguarding of employment or regional or structural imbalances.

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The policy of competition law intends to protect four issues, which occur within the free market of trade within and between Member States. The first is to prevent agreements with a restrictive nature being made between firms that do not have a beneficial effect. The second is to control monopoly firms with market power from abusing their position and preventing competition entering the market as well as distorting the market itself. Thirdly, a workable market needs to be watched and maintain in oligopolistic markets. Fourthly, the monitoring of mergers is required to prevent concentration of the market dominance and diminish competitive pressures within it. EC policy is broad to allow the Commission to develop the principles. Other policies including economic, social and political can have an effect on competition. Different weighting is given to policies when deciding upon the facts before the courts.

Competition law is based on assumptions of Perfect Competition which assumes that there is an unlimited amount of buyers and sellers, there is free entry and exit to the market, products are identical and homogeneous and there is full product information available to the consumer to be able to form a rational choice and decision on the purchase of products. However, the conditions to aspire to Perfect Competition are not so easily achieved within the market itself, in fact virtually impossible as the market is not consistent or stable.

On the other hand, not having any competition regulations will leave the market open to domination by monopolistic firms. This enables the firm to control the output of products and fixing the price of products. Thus, the monopoly distorts the natural competition of the market. Although the formation of a monopoly is economically harmful, it is ecceptable to have a natural monopoly where the cost to produce two products is cheaper than one. In addition, a state may infer a monopoly.

Due to the impossibility and undesirability of the above forms of competition there has to be a balance between the two. This is generally the case of regulators watching the markets within the EU. Competition Law acts as an "invisible hand" .

1. Economic Structure

To be able to understand the effects of competition an economic view of the market needs to be considered. Undertakings act in accordance with demand for the product they produce and then supply to fulfil that market. This is known as "supply and demand". Without competition a firm can control the output of supply and set the prices of products, thus effecting the natural market by having the power to create a shortage of the product to the demand required. This enables firms to increase the price of the product. There are two types of demand, an elastic demand, where consumers cease to buy the product if prices increase and inelastic demand, where product prices increase and the level of consumer purchase stays consistent.

1.4 Effects of Competition

The effects of competition comply with its objectives in producing greater efficiency, consumer welfare and protection of small and medium sized firms within the markets. Allocative efficiency is created when resources are supplied in accordance with demand, therefore an adequate number of products are produced without any over production thus reducing cost. In being efficient the production costs are kept to a minimum in order to gain the efficiency and maximise profits. These profits allow investment in dynamic efficiency to improve the product through research and development. Competition between firms allows the consumer to have several benefits as they have a wider choice of products, a better range of products due to innovation and lower prices. This permits the consumer to have a freedom of choice when selecting their product. Competition also enhances the freedom of firms to enter the market, compete with, and be protected from those already established. Thus creating an internal market of all member states.

1.5 Vertical Agreements

The first policy of competition law is to prevent agreements of a restrictive nature. An agreement occurs when two or more firms come together and work towards a common goal. The commission stated "… it involves joint decision-making and commitment to a common scheme…" . The term restrictive in relation to the EU competition law is defined as "direct or indirect, actual or potential effect on interstate trade" or any effect whatsoever on the market.

Agreements can take place at different levels within the chain of production, from producer to retailer to consumer; this is called vertical agreements and can come in several forms . Agreements between firms on the same level, such as between retailers is called horizontal agreements. Both forms of agreements can breach competition law, which are covered by Articles 81 to of the Treaty and are regulated by the commission.

It is necessary to have a detailed look at the varying types of vertical agreements that occur within the market and the effects they have on competition, whether positive or negative. Firstly, let it be known that vertical agreements are agreements made at different levels within the chain of distribution. It starts from the producer until the final agreement with the consumer.

A typical example would be an agreement made between producer/wholesaler, wholesaler/retailer, and retailer/consumer although other forms of agreements are included to include transportation agreements or the middleman is left out of the equation. Thus having various forms of vertically integrated agreements.

1.6 Benefits Of Vertical Agreements

Recently it is becoming increasingly more difficult to distinguish between various undertakings at the same level of the distribution process due to the evolving nature of the functions conducted and various phases of development. This is as well as difficulties due to MS having differences in the interpretation as to the activities the undertakings perform.

Due to the change of the European economy and the effects of competition, undertakings are having to become more efficient and adapt to the market in order to maintain and produce profits. To be able to do this 'value added' functions are incorporated into the process, thus the inclusion of transportation, finance and stock control, selling and promoting to appeal to sellers. However, the products must appeal to buyers at the other end of the market i.e. a cheap price. Thus the inclusion of 'value added' functions can reduce the cost of contracting out in which the savings can be passed on to the buyer. They can offer specialist functions due to better knowledge and more experience making the process more efficient. Retailers opt for the most economical and resourceful products, giving consumers freedom of choice and reasonable prices and keep up with consumer demand.

The need and wants of the final consumer, in which the retail industry has to fulfil in order to satisfy the demand and generate profits, cause trends in demand and supply. This was the system of 'push and Pull', where products were made in advance due to expectation of demand and followed consumer demand.

Recent changes have taken place, which has permitted undertakings to act more efficiently in response to the demand. The adoption of the 'Just-In Time principle is based on the fact that no products are made, components ordered until there is a down-stream demand for the product. The new system is more efficient and is less costly due to lower levels of wastage. It also forces undertakings to address any inefficiency in order to keep up with the pace of the market.

Advancement of Information Technology has enhanced efficiency with the use of electronic data interchange, bar coding, etc. This has also made it easier for undertakings to take on functions by others at a different level within the distribution process. These advances have enhanced the relationships between undertakings at various levels of the distribution process, as co-operation is required to establish, maintain and develop an efficient working relationship to be provide a satisfactory process which is satisfactory in complying with the objectives of competition policy, in particular the formation of a single market. An example of this is the partnership of Proctor & Gamble and Wal-Mart whereby the data system in Wal-Mart sends information to Proctor & Gamble and they send out a sufficient supply to meet the demands of the products.

1.7 Harmful Effects of Vertical Agreements

Obstacles occur when there is an anti-competitive effect due to the agreement between undertakings whether directly or indirectly effect the parties to the agreement or a third party. Thus making the agreements vertical restraints. In which EC competition law applies plays a role in preventing the anti-competitive agreements.

Vertical agreements can have anti-competitive effects on the market. This can occur in four ways. It can have the effect of foreclosing the market and raise the rivals cost, dampen competition, facilitate collusion and partition the market.

The commission guidelines identify four types of vertical restraints, Single Branding group, Limited Distribution group, Resale Price Maintenance group and Market partitioning group. These agreements limit buyers to where, how much to purchase products and which, where and how much to sell the product.

Article 81 of the EEC Treaty applies directly to agreements and concerted practices that have an anti-competitive effect. Article 81 prohibits "all agreements between undertakings, decisions by associations of undertakings and concerted practices which may affect trade between Member States and which have as their object or effect the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition within the common market". Vertical restraints fall within the contemplation of this Article in which it aims to prevent the agreements to continue having an anti-competitive effect on competition within the market.

1.8 Conclusion

Although some vertical restraints maybe permitted where there can be a beneficial effect, e.g. to be able to enter a new market. When used correctly vertical agreements can fulfil the policy objectives of creating and maintaining an internal market, and consumer welfare protection.

Please note that this sample paper on european competition law is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on european competition law, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on european competition law will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Protagorean Antilogic and Multiculturalism

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For Muslim women, practicing hijab, the covering up of one's hair and body is considered an honorable thing to do. For non-Muslim women, covering oneself in such a manner is considered unusual, unnecessary and uncomfortable, particularly on hot, summer days.

In India, marriage is looked upon as the pragmatic joining of two families and, therefore, families often arrange marriages among young men and women. In the United States and many other Western countries, love is regarded as a powerful emotion that overtakes two individuals who have the right to decide their own romantic and marital destinies.

In Japan and other Asian countries, direct eye contact is considered rude and aggressive. In the United States, avoidance of eye contact is considered evasive, strange and, in some cases, offensive.

In some African countries, the practice of female genital mutilation is common, accepted and deemed necessary if a woman is ever to find a husband to marry. In the West, this practice has been condemned as barbaric and horrific.

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Which culture is right and which is wrong? How do we navigate our way through a world where such differences exist? Do we here in the United States have a right to dictate to people in other countries with radically different cultural beliefs how they should behave?

Centuries after Protagoras' student wrote the Dissoi Logoi, Protagoras' ideas on relativism and measured debate are as relevant as ever in our modern world. In fact, the whole thrust of the multicultural education movement in the United States, which began in the 160s, is a Protagorean artifact.

In the Dissoi Logoi, the student uses Protagoras' doctrine of opposing arguments to illustrate his closely related concept that humans are the measure of all things. It is in the second section of the treatise entitled "On Seemly and Shameful" that the author deals directly with the issue of cultural relativism.

He writes that

To Spartans, for example, it is seemly that girls should exercise naked or walk around bare-armed or without a tunic, but to Ionians, this is shameful…….. The Thracians count it an adornment that their girls tattoo themselves, but in the eyes of everyone else tattoo-marks are a punishment for wrong-doers……Massagetes cut up their parents and eat them, and it seems to them an especially seemly form of entombment to be buried inside of one's children; if a person did this in Greece he would be driven out of Greece and die a miserable death for doing things that are shameful and horrible.

Just as the ancient Greeks had to communicate and co-exist with the Macedonians, the Spartans, the Scythians and the Thessalians, modern-day Americans must interact with the Iraqis, the French, the Mexicans, the Koreans and the Canadians (a notoriously difficult nation). Not only that, but there are more and more people coming to the United States every year from all over the world and staying here to raise their families.

According to 000 U.S. Census Bureau statistics, the number of Americans identifying themselves as white/non-Latino dropped from 7.57% in 180 to 6.1% in 000, and the number of African Americans rose only slightly from 11.56% in 180 to 1.6% in 000. In contrast, the numbers of Americans identifying themselves as Asian rose from 1.54% in 180 to .60% in 000, and the number of Latino Americans rose from 6.45% in 180 to 1.55% in 000.

The antilogic and human-measure principals are useful in a society such ours where ethnic and cultural diversity makes absolute truths difficult to qualify. Protagoras asserts that all knowledge is relative to each individual's perspective, which is invariably shaded by their psychological, social and cultural backgrounds. He also asserts that for every issue one can think of under the sun, there are "two arguments opposed to each other".

Instead of defining the argument for one culture's way of doing things as superior to another culture, Protagoras would encourage the close examination and comparison of each competing logos in order to gain a deeper understanding of both. This approach to dissension would be in keeping with the philosophy behind the modern multicultural movement.

Multiculturalism developed out of the U.S. civil rights movement of the 150s and 160s. During the latter part of the 160s, activists began openly challenging the American educational system, demanding that it be more egalitarian and inclusive of all races.

Following the civil rights victories of the 160s, there was a push throughout the country to change schools' curricula for students at all levels, from Kindergarten through college. But changing the curricula so that it was less racially exclusive was only one of the agendas of the multicultural movement. In the 170s and 180s, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity and disability all became areas of focus for the movement as well.

In his 18 book Multicultural Education Issues and Perspectives, James Banks, one of the pioneers of multicultural education, wrote that

In order to maintain a "multicultural school environment", all aspects of the school have to be examined and transformed, including policies, teachers' attitudes, instructional materials, assessment methods, counseling and teaching styles.

Protagoras would undoubtedly endorse multiculturalism, in principal at least, if he were alive today for it encourages dialogue among and between parties with opposing perspectives. Antilogic demands a robust exchange between two, different and generally competing logos. It urges us to not only accommodate opposing arguments, but to seek them out and to recognize them as being as valid as our own. It emphasizes the importance of a true, vigorous exchange of ideas, where each side really listens to the other and doesn't merely try to gloss over differences in order to arrive at a superficial agreement.

It is often illuminating to note the detractors of a movement or philosophy because in defining the contrasting elements of a competing ideology, the contours of the original ideology become easier to define. Not surprisingly, many of the critics of the multicultural movement argue that Western culture is superior to all other cultures and need not share the academic or artistic stage with them.

Scholars such as philosophy professor Allan Bloom uphold the Western cannon of texts as the more authentic and valuable than those of other cultures. He argues that by insisting that students learn about other cultures, the educational system weakens itself. Without complete hegemony, his reasoning goes, Western-centered researchers and scholars will face oblivion.

In his 187 book Closing of the American Mind, Bloom states

War is the fundamental phenomenon on which peace can sometimes be forced, but always in the most precious way. Liberal democracies do not fight wars with one another because they see the same human nature and the same rights applicable everywhere and to everyone. Cultures fight wars with one another. They must do so because values can only be asserted or posited by overcoming others, not by reasoning with them. (p.0)

As far as Bloom sees it, there can be no antilogical "bilateral flow" of information between those who value the Western cannon of educational teachings, which of course includes the artifacts of ancient Greece, and those who value the teachings of other cultures. Bloom and other critics of multiculturalism would be more closely aligned with Plato and Aristotle than with Protagoras in their belief in one, absolute notion of truth and, in their case, culture that is superior to all others.

They would also be more in line with Plato in their contempt for those who do not seek out the unadulterated truth or bow down to the superiority of Western culture. The aroma of elitism is unmistakable in many of the writings of the critics of both rhetoric and multiculturalism.

In addition to those who oppose the multicultural education movement because they believe it threatens the traditional Western cannon of arts and letters, there are those who attack multiculturalism because they believe it threatens our freedom as individuals.

Followers of the author Ayn Rand, who espoused a philosophy of radical individualism, have also been ardent critics of multiculturalism. They believe that every individual's reality is unique and different from everyone else's reality. According to their philosophy, selfishness, egotism and capitalism are good and anything that resembles communalism or collectivism is bad. They despise multiculturalism because they think that it encourages a "group-think" mentality, and denies individuals who belong to a cultural group the freedom to develop an identity that is independent of their group identity.

In light of the fact that critics have labeled Protagoras solipsistic, it is ironic that those who embrace radical individualism -- a philosophy that could safely be categorized as solipsistic -- attack a neo-Protagorean philosophy such as multiculturalism.

In his 00 book Many Sides, Michael Mendelson, Ph.D. defends Protagoras from those who charge him with solipsism by pointing out the inherently social nature of his antilogical theory. Mendelson argues that for any logos or argument to have any meaning to anyone other than the rhetor, it must be

"……examined alongside alternative positions, the antilogi which naturally arise in the process of open, social exchange. Only by comparing the widest variety of positions and counter-pointing each against objections raised by another can we arrive at ideas agreed upon as sound." (p.44)

This, of course, is a far cry from the solipsistic philosophy of denying that anything exists outside of the "realm of personal consciousness".

Proponents of multiculturalism and good, old-fashioned Protagorean debate would have to agree that the diversity and complexity of our modern world demand a reexamination of rhetorical dialogue. Our world today isn't that much different from ancient Greece in that the men and occasionally women who we elect democratically to run our public affairs still face similar crises. Not the least of these include whether or not to wage war on a country when all of the facts are still be gathered.

It is more important than ever that we don't rely on our own counsel to navigate ourselves through the multicultural maze we also know as the world. The time has never been better to endorse the Protagorean principal of strenuous debate and respect for those who oppose our way of thinking for if everyone is right, then as Bloom so vividly states, war will continue to be our "fundamental phenomenon."

References

Banks, James (187) C. Banks (Ed.), Multicultural Education Issues and Perspectives. Boston Allyn and Bacon.

Bloom, Allan (187). Closing of the American Mind. New York, New York Simon and Schuster.

Mendeldon, Michael (00). Many Sides A Protagorean Approach to Theory, Practice, and Pedagogy of Argument. Dordrecht Kluwer Academic Publishers.

References

Banks, James (187) C. Banks (Ed.), Multicultural Education Issues and Perspectives. Boston Allyn and Bacon.

Bloom, Allan (187). Closing of the American Mind. New York, New York Simon and Schuster.

Mendeldon, Michael (00). Many Sides A Protagorean Approach to Theory, Practice, and Pedagogy of Argument. Dordrecht Kluwer Academic Publishers.

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Analysis on a midsummer night's dream

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Two themes present in many of Shakespeares plays, the struggle of men to dominate women and the conflict between father and daughter, form a large part of the dramatic content of A Midsummer Nights Dream. In the first act both forms of tension appear, when Theseus remarks that he has won Hippolyta by defeating her, Hippolyta, I wooed thee with my sword (1.1.16), and via the conflict between Egeus and Hermia. Adding to this war of the sexes are Lysander and Demetrius, both wooing Hermia away from her father.

It is therefore necessary to realize that A Midsummer Nights Dream is really a play about finding oneself in order to be free of these authoritative and sexual conflicts. The forest therefore quickly emerges as the location where all of these struggles must be resolved. Hermia will try to seek her freedom from Egeus in the woods, in the process fighting a battle against arranged marriages and for passionate love. The buffoons, in the form of the artisans, add an undercurrent of comedy which at first masks the very real events unfolding on the stage. Yet later they will provide a terrifying (albeit funny) vision of what could have happened in A Midsummer Nights Dream, in the form of their Pyramus and Thisbe play.

Recalling Romeo and Juliet, Theseus offers Hermia the choice of the nunnery or death. As always in Shakespeare (note Juliet), this is not a viable option for a young woman who is beautiful. Hermia therefore decides to run away rather than face the certainty of death.

A remarkable aspect of A Midsummer Nights Dream is that it contains a play within a play. The story of Pyramus and Thisbe serves to not only show the tragedy that might have occurred if the fairies had not intervened, but also to comment on the nature of reality versus theater. Nick Bottom, afraid the lion will frighten the ladies, get them to write a prologue in which the lion is explicitly revealed as only being an actor. Adding to this, Pyramus must further provide a commentary in which he informs the audience that he is not really committing suicide, but is only acting.

Write your analysis on a midsummer night's dream research paper

This play within a play is therefore used by Shakespeare to make a subtle point about theater, namely the fact that it is only acting. Elizabethan times were not so far removed from the medieval past that actors lived with impunity, regardless of their roles. The threat of censorship was very real, a fact that Shakespeare makes laughable in Pyramus and Thisbe. A further purpose of pointing out the distinction between theater and reality could have been to try and convince the public that it does not matter what is put on stage, since the audience clearly knows that it is only a facade. However, Shakespeare throws all of this into doubt with his suggestion in the epilogue that the play has only been a dream.

The aspect of the woods as a place for the characters to reach adulthood is made even more explicit in this scene. In the dialogue between Helena and Demetrius, the woods are a place to be feared, and also are a place to lose virginity. As Demetrius warns, You do impeach your modesty too much, / To leave the city and commit yourself / Into the hands of one that loves you not; / To trust the opportunity of night / And the ill counsel of a desert place, / With the rich worth of your virginity (.1.14-1). Thus the forest can be allegorically read as a sort of trial for the characters, a phase they must pass through in order to reach maturity.

Hermias serpent serves as a sign of the monsters which are in the woods. This plays into the fact that the woods are not only a place which the characters must escape from, but are also a place of imagination. Hermias fear of her dream, in which the monster and the danger are only imagined, is meant to show the audience that the danger in a play is only imagined by the audience; neither the play nor Hermias dream are real

What is interesting in this scene is the interchangeability of the characters. Lysander and Demetrius, Helena and Hermia, each of them switches roles and becomes the other person. One of the primary ways that Shakespeare indicates maturity is to make his characters distinct. Thus, at this stage of the play the lovers are clearly not yet mature enough in their love to escape from the forest. Puck makes this clear by the way he leads them around in circles until they all collapse in exhaustion. It is this interchangeability that must be resolved before the lovers can fully exit from the forest.

The nature of this interchangeability is further evidenced by the characters themselves. Helena says to Hermia

We, Hermia, like two artificial gods Have with our needles created both one flower, Both on one sampler, sitting on one cushion, Both warbling of one song, both in one key, As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds Had been incorporate. So we grew together, Like to a double cherry (..04-10).

Like to a double cherry. This line sums up the reason why they are lost in the forest it is necessary for them to become distinct from one another. After all, Lysander and Demetrius have been able to shift their love to Helena without noticing any difference whatsoever. Therefore, the forest is not only a place of maturation, but also of finding ones identity.

Perhaps the most famous line from A Midsummer Nights Dream is when Puck remarks, Lord what fools these mortals be! (..115). His exclamation, directed at the ridiculous antics of Lysander, is also a direct jibe towards the audience. The nature of human love is challenged in this line, which implies that people will make fools of themselves because of love.

Shakespeares challenge of what is real versus what is only dreamed emerges in full force in this scene. Oberon decides that he will resolve the conflicts once and for all, saying, And when they wake, all this derision / Shall seem a dream and fruitless vision (..7-). Thus the lovers are expected to wake up, each loving the correct person, and each having found his or her own identity.

The transition of reality into only a dream emerges a second time in Act Four. Oberon tells Titania that Bottom will think no more of this nights accidents / But as the fierce vexation of a dream (4.1.65-6). Indeed, this is exactly what happens The eye of man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen, mans hand is not able to taste, his tongue to conceive, nor his heart to report what my dream was (4.1.05-07).

It is the way that Bottom deals with his nightmare of a dream that is important and interesting. Not only is he not afraid of it, but he wants to turn it into a ballad. Turning a fearful nightmare into a fun song is crucial to understanding what Shakespeare has done with A Midsummer Nights Dream. This play is the Romeo and Juliet theme woven into a play, taking the sad tragedy and converting it into comedy. Thus Shakespeare is making a further comment about the nature of plays and acting, showing them to be a medium by which our worst fears can be dissipated into hilarity.

The nature of doubling emerges once again in this act, but for the last time. Hermia remarks that, Methinks I see these things with parted eye, / When everything seems double (4.1.186-7). This comment occurs right after Theseus has overridden Egeus desires and agreed to let Hermia and Lysander get married. Hermia is correct about the fact that this is a doubling of marriages. In spite of escaping from the confusion of the forest, there is still a lingering uncertainty about whether Lysander and Demetrius have been able to distinguish between Helena and Hermia. The effect of having a double wedding merely makes the newfound differences more vague, making Hermia wonder if things still are in fact double.

This final act at first seems completely unnecessary to the overall plot of the play. After all, in Act Four we not only have the lovers getting married, but there has been a happy resolution to the conflict. Thus, the immediate question which arises is why Shakespeare felt it necessary to include this act.

The answer lies in the fact that Shakespeare is trying to drive home a point about theater; he wants to make it very clear that the ending to this play could just as easily have been tragedy, not comedy. The Pyramus and Thisbe play makes this very clear because it parallels the actual action of the lovers so closely. Pyramus and Thisbe decide to run away, a lion (one of the monsters in the forest) emerges and seizes Thisbes cloak, and when Pyramus sees the bloodied cloak he rashly commits suicide. This ending could easily have been the ending to A Midsummer Nights Dream.

The final act also serves to challenge the audiences notions about reality and imagination. Seeing the pathetic acting of the artisans, Theseus remarks that, The lunatic, the lover, and the poet / Are of imagination all compact (5.1.7-8). By this he means that it is imagination which makes people crazy, but it is also the imagination which inspires people. Without imagination it would be much more difficult to enjoy a play, as evidenced by the farce of Pyramus and Thisbe, about which Hippolyta comments, This is the silliest stuff that ever I heard. Theseus helps her overcome this problem by saying, The best in this kind are but shadows, and the worst are no worse if imagination amend them (5.1.07,08). Thus, the imagination can solve all the problems.

Perhaps the most telling line of the last act is when Theseus asks, How shall we find the concord of this discord? (5.1.60). That is exactly what has happened in the play itself, namely there has been a resolution to the discord of the lovers in the initial scenes, which by the end has turned into concord.

The play is considered a comedy. The most famous character is the spirit, Puck. It is believed to have been written around the same time as Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, and shares many characteristics with that tragedy a plot centering on rebellious young love, florid imagery in language that often feels more separate from the dramatic action than it does in Shakespeares more mature works. Pyramus and Thisbe, the comical tragedy performed by the mechanicals at the end of Midsummer, bears an even closer resemblance to the plot of Romeo and Juliet.

The plot has several strands, and the relationship of Oberon, king of the fairies, and his estranged wife, Titania, is mirrored by that of Duke Theseus and his bride, Hippolyta, who are about to be married - to the extent that the parts of Oberon/Theseus and Titania/Hippolyta are sometimes played by the same actors. Two young men, Lysander and Demetrius, are both in love with the same woman, Hermia; Hermia prefers Lysander, but her friend, Helena, is in love with Demetrius. Into the middle of this complex situation stumbles Bottom, a weaver and the leader of a group of common working men who intend to perform a play as part of the Dukes wedding celebrations. Oberon recruits Puck to help him regain Titanias devotion, but his simultaneous attempt to help the young lovers goes wrong, resulting in confusion. As usual with Shakespeare, the comedy has a bitter-sweet note, when Hermias two lovers both, temporarily, turn against her.

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Effects of media

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INFLUENCE OF MEDIA

Before the late 1th century, there was only the printed word to convey information to the masses. Since then, the world has seen the invention of radio, television, and most recently the Internet. One of the most powerful means of communicating ideas is through the use of mass media. The mass media has become an extremely persuasive industry, especially with children and adolescents. Children and adolescents can be very influenced by what someone says to them, or what they see. The Committee on Public Education reported last year that young people spend more time in front of the television than they do in school or with their parents. Mass media has a negative influence over pre-adolescents and adolescents because it creates distorded self image, encourages violence, contains very explicit sexual content and also promotes the use of drugs.

Mass media had always had a greater impact over the thoughts and belifs of women than those of men("Body Image and Advertising, pg 1). It has always played a very important role in a womens every day life. Women, especially adolescents and pre-adolescents because of how easily they can be influenced, have always had a lot of preoccupations with their outside image, and consequently, they are extremely concerned about the way they are seen by others. Since mass media exists, the images of women that are presented in it play a larger role in the formation of women's body images reather than the opinion of friends or family. Women that are presented in media show extremely thin models, which can promote such eating disorders as bulimia and anorexia nervosa (refer to appendix images 1, and ). Mass media provides to its audiences an unrealistic and often unhealthy image of the beauty of the women. All of this women become concerned about their outside appearance trying to imitate the beauty of women that they see or read about in the mass media. A big subject will be the teenagers who try o become models or actress. Catherine Stevenson, who is a seventeen year old girl, who is starting to become part of the modeling job, says "I've seen lost of anorexian girls been ask to loose more weight because if not they will kick them out of the company." She also comments that all of these girls will do anything to become their dream true.

This obsession, of trying to be like women seen on TV or magazines, can lead to eating disorders. Eating disroders develop as outward signs of inside emotional problems. They can develop into a way that people deal with and solve their problems. Eating or not eaitng is used to help to handle painful feelings such as being unsatisfied with your body. The link between mass media and suffering any kind of eating disorder problem its becoming more powerful every day that passes. The influence of media in the spreading of eating disorders cannot be denied. Since chilhood women is been attack with images and messages reinforcing the idea of to be happy and succesful it is necessary to be thin. Often, adolescents feel bad and depress if their bodies, including weight, hips and breasts, do not match with the model that the TV is showing in that instant, or with the singer that is being shown in the article on the magazine that they read two minutes ago. As a university professor called Prof. Michelle Wolf says in his article called SF State researchers release study about women, the mass media, and the development of body image

People are dying from anorexia, bulimia, and other eating disorders while trying to attain some ideal body image that is initially created by a family and peer group dynamic and is then reinforced by a consumer culture that is driven by narrowly-defined images of beauty..."(pg 1)

Although distorded body image has always been known to have a major affect on women and girls,in the last ten years the preasure on boys to appear muscular has also gorwn. Many males are becoming extremely insecure with their body appearance as media increases the emission of standard and idealize well-built men. These images had generate a variety of responses from teenage boys, some turn to the use of anabolic steroids, others increase their dietary suplaments like Creatine and most of them get obsessed with excesive weigh training. A survey conducted last year found that steroid use among boys ages twelve to seventeen increased by twenty five percent from 1 to 000("Steroid Use Growing Among Young Boys", pg 1). A teen psychologist Dr. Meredith Branson in the article Striving For the Baywatch Boy Build page 1 says "Ive seen boys becoming addicted to exercise. Some guys exercise as much as four hours a day. These people say they are not addicted, but when they try to exercise for only three hours, they have problems..."

Anorexia, bulimia, the excessive use of steroids, the obsession with dietary suplaments and the addiction to exercise in adolescents are all very serious problems mainly caused by the steriotyped images shown in TV, the continious articles in the magazines about 'the perfect body' and by the pressure that media implements over young society.

Another of the problems that the adolescent society has to deal with is violence in media. Young minds had been exposed to violent films and TV programs over the past thirty years. In the same period of time, violent crime between adolescents also increased significantly. It is difficult to belive that simply viewing a movie, or listening to a song can be so damaging to children. But there is a lot of evidence and real cases that show how dangerous movies and songs can be. This was the case of a high school student of a small town on Germany who got obsessed with a video game, and after playing it for several hours, the next day he kill lots of students and teachers in his class("The mass media" pg 14). The National Committee on the causes and prevention of violence reported in 16 that violence in the media had a negative effect on children and on adolescents. Violent movies or TV shows encourage violent forms of behavior and promotes violence in daily life as being an acceptable thing. Violence in movies should have strict regulation because it has negative effects on the behavior on a children.

The formation of gangs is also a negative result that mass media promotes. Gangs get into the lives of young people through the media. A recent study indicates that from 185 to 11, the annual rates at which young men aged 15 to 1 years old were killed jumped 154 percent.

The entire increase was attributed to the use of guns in gang situations("Gangs the new family", pg 1). Movies or videos which show gang members enjoying the fruitsof their ilegal activities can suggest in some minds of childrens and adolescents a way to reach the goal that all people of that age are looking for, success; and the way that sucess is earned in those movies or videos is usually by the use of violence. Sometimes these movies go too much into detail in showing very explicit things. Also the fact that this gangs are almost never cought after commiting and endless list of ilegal actions influence children into believing that they as well will not receive any negative consequences for their actions .

The negative perceptions that women has in media can affect to women in real life because of the continuous promoting of violence over women. Women are often presented as victims of violence, or as sexual objects in media, this can contribute in the way that women can be seen in real society. Men who had watch a number of films in which women are presented in sexually degrading or violent situations become increasingly less anguished by violence against women("Violence, women and the media", pg1). Not only tv or movies are influencial, other media like songs or music videos or video or computer games degradate women in thier emissions. Songs like Stripped, Raped and Strangled by Cannibal Corpse and Smack My Bitch Up by Prodigy are usually top ten songs among teens. As aforementioned computer games also affect in the role of women in society. According to sociologists, games such as Tomb Raider encourage sexism and condition adolescents to view the world as they do the in their computer screen.

A relationship between aggression and childrens viewing of mass media violence exists. Media violence stimulates agression. Media violence should be restricted and limmitated because of the infinity of harmful effects that has over pre adolescents and adolsecents.

On the same way that practicing violence is a problem, early sexual intercourse among adolescent is also a public health problem. This can be caused by a long variety of factors, but one of the major factors that cause it is the media. In films, music, or other kind of media sexual images and dialogues among others are becoming very explicit. In addtion to this, some of those images or dialogues are unrealistic, mistaken and confusing information that an adolescent or a child can take it as a fact, and accept it as a real thing. Most of the teenagers take TV programs, movies and magazines as reputable sources of information about sexuality. Usually, and rarely happens, the movies never promote the use of contraceptives or show the consequences that can cause the lack of uning it. Another fact that can be very influencial is that in TV usually the people who are having sex are characters of ages between eighteen and twenty four, and sometimes less than eighteen("Media literacy and middle grade students a rationale."pg 1). Sex on TV can have other harmful consequences like the disatisfaction with virginity, the premature birth and even it has been associated with the lower of the academic records and scores.

On the other hand, media also promotes the use of alcohol tabaco and other ilicit drugs like LSD. Lots of movies describe or represent in a very explicit way drugs, and usually not because they were advertising about the consequences of them, but because they were using them as a way of solving problems, or mostly as a way of having fun. Movies and song are the two major types of media that influence over the use of drugs. The use of drugs in movies and songs is countiniously (refered to appendix figure 1), more often in movies than in songs (referred to appendix figure ) but still popular songs are very influencial. The use of drugs in them is usually commited by very young people (refered to appendix figure )and this can be misunderstood by adolescents. In addition to this the reference to drugs in movies and songs is used as a way of avoidence of troubles and worries, this could seriously motivate adolescents to use drugs as a solution to their problems. The use of drugs in movies or songs, or any kind of media sould be restricted because it encourages adolescents to use them.

Mass media has a negative influence over pre-adolescents and adolescents because it creates distorted self image, encourages violence, contains very explicit sexual content and also promotes the use of drugs. Beacuse all of this factors that were aforementioned there should be an increase in the number of educational programs and a restriction of harmful emissions.

Please note that this sample paper on effects of media is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on effects of media, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on effects of media will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Comparison of a profit and a non profit organisation

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All organisation's whether they be profit making or non profit making have to increase awareness of their services and products to all of their key stake holders in order to maximise and achieve their set targets and objectives.

Most non profit making organisations operate in the services sector such as hospitals and local authorities or exist as charities such as Oxfam or NSPCC. The objectives of a non-profit making organisation differ from that of profit making organisations in terms of they have other objectives apart from making a profit. Their main primary goals are non economic, for example, Oxfam aim to alleviate hunger throughout the world. Over the years marketing amongst non-profit making organisations has become ever more important. This is due to the fact that many non-profit organisations rely on membership fees and donations so it is essential that effective methods of communications are used to increase awareness amongst individuals and organisations in order to maximise the memberships and donations.

In 14, the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief met for the first time, establishing what is now one of the best-known non-government organisations in the world, Oxfam. Oxfam Great Britain is a development, relief, and campaigning organisation dedicated to finding lasting solutions to poverty and suffering around the world. The organisations aim is to enable all human beings to have a life of dignity and opportunity. This is achieved through working with poor communities, local partners, volunteers, and supporters to overcome poverty and suffering.

Oxfam works in 70 countries throughout the world joining together to fight poverty. Oxfam helps by giving money and advice, helping people to help themselves. This way they grow more food, dig wells for clean water, train health workers, learn to read and write, plant trees and gain confidence and build mutual trust.

Oxfam relies on public donations to continue providing long-term support to the people around the world. Oxfam uses powerful advertising to persuade the general public to make a donation. This powerful advertising is usually done via television. The adverts show people, usually children in third world countries suffering due to poverty and famine, asking you to donate three pounds a month. This initial scene is set to play on the viewer's mind and inflict a feeling of guilt. The advert then shows how your donation will be spent, stressing the fact that your money will be a long term investment. This is aimed to give the viewer satisfaction and reassure them that their money going to be used in a positive way. At the end of the advert a telephone number is given for viewers to ring up and donate using a debit cards. There are a number of ways available in which you can make a donation to Oxfam, the latest method available is through a secure online donation, using a credit card, other methods include a monthly direct debit installment or the more traditional cash donation.

Oxfam's other main source of finance is through their Fair Trade Shops, which sell quality, handcrafted products from around the world. Oxfam use to raise money by selling clothes and bric-a-brac donated by the general public. In the mid 0's Oxfam developed their product range, through market research they discovered people were more willing to by hand crafted items than second hand clothes etc. Due to this Oxfam decided to work with other countries and have them produce handcrafted products and sell them in Oxfam stores. Oxfam works with over 0 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. This scheme is known as Oxfam Fair Trade, helping people earn a living from their skills. Oxfam help train and support the producers, linking them with consumers and paying them a fair wage. Oxfam have developed this scheme so consumers know that the people behind the products get a decent wage and a fair deal.

Through developing and extending their product range Oxfam also developed their market. The new product ranges attracted people from different market segments meaning their target audience grew and incorporated a wider target market.

The key stakeholders of Oxfam are as follows

Committee (organisers), aid relief workers, volunteers (shop workers etc),

Customers, members (people who donate on a monthly basis), individuals in the third world who Oxfam will benefit.

Media, Banks.

It is essential that profit making organisations identify their target markets through extensive research and develop a successful marketing mix that will hopefully achieve all of their aims and objectives. As expected the main aim of a profit making organisation is to maximise profits, this then allows organisations to meet other objectives such as to grow and expand.

Marks & Spencer is a renowned company world wide, which prides it self on providing top quality products and service. Marks & Spencer was established in 1884 by a Russian refugee named Michael Marks. Marks ran a small market stall selling clothes insisting on selling high quality products, which has become a trademark of M&S over the years. In 184 Marks formed a partnership with Tom Spencer, a clerk for a clothing company, Dewhurst, which is still a major supplier for M&S. This is when the company's name Marks & Spencer was first introduced. In 16 the company became a public limited company (plc) and in 11 the company started selling food. In 175 their first European store (in Paris) was officially opened. Over the years the company has grew and gained a successful reputation. Their group turnover is £8bn, on which they make £1bn profit (a very high profit/turnover ratio compared to other retail stores). They have 68,000 employees, and serve 15m customers per week. Their UK business provides 0% of their turnover, half from food and half from other sources. There are 00 stores in Britain with 7 situated throughout the world. Their European stores are run as franchises; they also have US subsidiaries under different names.

Throughout the 180's Marks & Spencer's company statement was to provide top quality products. This was the case and the company was renowned as one of the best in Britain. M&S undertook very little advertising as business was booming and their excellent reputation was spread via word of mouth leading to repeat custom. Due to this their customers were marketing the company themselves and this was a perfect way of reaching and broadening their target market through their target market.

However throughout the 10's Marks & Spencer's reputation started to fall and instead they gained a reputation of being dated and dull. By the late 0's both sales and share prices had fallen to an all time low. The board of directors elected a new chairman (Luc Vanderbelt), who was given the task of reinventing the company. His main objective was to give the company a new image and introduce product ranges that would appeal to a variety of target markets, young and old, male and female.

A number of new product ranges were gradually introduced, including a designer range named 'Autograph', a new casual men's range called 'Blue Harbor' and the much publicised 'Per Una' range designed by George Davies. In order to promote the company's new image extensive national advertising was undertaken. For the first time M&S were advertising in newspapers, magazines and on the television. Along with this all M&S stores were refurbished to give a more modern feel and appearance and new staff uniforms were introduced.

Since these changes have been made Marks & Spencer's sales have steadily started to increase and they have regained their reputation as one of Britain's most succesful companies.

The Key Stakeholders of Marks & Spencer are as follows

Board of Directors, Chairman, managers (regional, store, department), employees.

Shareholders, customers, suppliers, sub-contractors (cleaners, caterers), other sources of finance (banks etc).

Government, competitors.

Media, lobby groups.

From the two stakeholder diagrams you can see that there are some similarities between the two organisations in terms of the individuals and organisations concerned, but in general the structure under which these individuals are involved does differ. The first noticeable difference is the number of layers to each diagram. Oxfam has fewer people concerned with their business in comparison to a large profit making organisation such as Marks & Spencer.

The core of each diagram is similar with the people directly concerned with the running of the organisation. The main difference is Marks & Spencer has paid employees working in their stores whereas Oxfam rely upon volunteers to work in their stores.

The second layer of each diagram differs quite substantially. Both organisations rely upon customers as a source of finance. M&S also gain finance through their shareholders (purchasing shares from stock market) and banks whereas Oxfam rely on donations as their only other source of finance. The suppliers and subcontractors of M&S will also be placed in this second layer of the diagram as they are closely relied upon for the smooth running of the business. The people who Oxfam are aiming to help in the third world will also be in this section of the stakeholder diagram as they will be considered in terms of the aims and objectives of the organisation.

Marks & Spencer's stakeholder diagram has an extra layer, in this section it includes organisations who do not have a direct influence on the running of the company but do indirectly. These organisations include the Government (may affect M&S by introducing new laws and legislation's) and competitors (their advertising and pricing strategies may affect M&S sales).

The final section of each diagram consists of organisations who have no link to M&S or Oxfam but have the power to influence their target markets and the general public. These include the media/press and lobby groups. In terms of Oxfam the bank may also be included in this section of the stakeholder diagram, this is due to the fact the bank does not act as a source of finance as it does for M&S, it would only be used as a place to store Oxfam's donations.

In comparison the main difference between profit making organisations and non profit making organisation is their objectives. A profit making organisation such as Marks & Spencer aims to make a profit in order to pay dividends back to shareholders and grow and expand whereas a non-profit making orgnisation aims to reduce poverty through donations of the general public. However, one thing both types of organisations do have in common is they both conduct marketing and advertising in order to meet their objectives.

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