The Narcissist

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The purpose of this research is to educate everyone about the personality disorder known as narcissism. Through facts and expert opinions, I plan to discuss characteristics of people with narcissism, the many different types of narcissistic disorders, and the many different ways the mental disorder can be treated.

Narcissistic personality disorder is a complex and often misunderstood disorder. The main feature of the narcissistic personality is the exaggerated sense of self-importance, but underneath this front, the narcissist suffers from a chronically fragile low self-esteem. The ways of the narcissist are so strange that they tend to be dehumanized by society. The narcissist conjures in us images of the mythological character, Narcissus, who could only love himself, spiting anyone who attempted to touch him. Nevertheless, it is the underlying sense of inferiority which is the real problem of the narcissist. They want to give the impression that they are powerful, well-respected individuals.(World Book Encyclopedia,10)

The narcissist's behavior is designed to reaffirm his sense of adequacy. Since the narcissist is incapable of asserting his own sense of adequacy, the narcissist seeks to be admired by others. However, the narcissist's extremely fragile sense of self-worth does not allow him to risk any criticism. Therefore, meaningful emotional interactions with others are avoided. By simultaneously seeking the admiration of others and keeping them at a distance, the narcissist is usually able to maintain the illusion of importance no matter how people respond. Thus, when people praise the narcissist, his feeling of being a very important person will increase, but when criticized the feeling will usually remain unaffected because the narcissist will devalue whoever is doing the criticizing.

There are three areas of pathological functioning which characterize the narcissist. In particular, four of these narcissistic character traits best illustrate the pattern discussed above. The first trait is that a narcissistic individual has a basic sense of inferiority, which underlies a preoccupation with fantasies of outstanding achievement. Second, a narcissistic individual is unable to trust and rely on others and thus develops numerous, shallow relationships to extract tributes from others. Third, a narcissistic individual has a shifting morality which is always ready to shift values to gain favor.

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The narcissist who enters therapy does not think that there is something wrong with him . Typically, the narcissist seeks therapy because he is unable to maintain the sense of self-importance which protects him from the feelings of despair. The narcissist views his situation arising not as a result of a personal fault, rather it is some factor in the environment which is beyond the narcissist's control which has caused his present situation. Therefore, the narcissist expects the therapist not to cure him from a problem which he does not perceive to exist, rather the narcissist expects the therapist to restore the protective feeling of self-importance. It is therefore essential for the therapist to be alert to the narcissists attempts to steer therapy towards healing the injured arrogant part, rather than exploring the underlying feelings of inferiority and despair. According to studies by well known psychologists, a crisis could lead to the development of a narcissistic personality. The individual who is unable to successfully master the

challenges of this stage will sustain a narcissistic injury. In essence the narcissistic injury will occur whenever the environment needs the individual to be something which he is not. The narcissistic injury devastates the individual's emerging self. Unable to be what he truly is the narcissistically injured person adapts by splitting his personality into the nuclear (real) self and the false self. The real self becomes fragmented and repressed, whereas the false self takes over the individual. The narcissist thus learns to reject himself by hiding what has been rejected by others. Subsequently, the narcissist will attempt to compensate for his deficiencies by trying to impress others by his 'superiority'. The narcissist finally decides that there is something wrong with his ordinary self and he must act out of his other self in order to gain the respect of others. Just as the individual becomes narcissistic because that is what the environment needed him to be, he also expects the environment to change along with what he believes as well. Others are thus perceived to exist only in relation to the narcissist's needs. The term object relations thus takes on a special meaning with the narcissist. "We are objects to him, and to the extent that we are narcissistic, others are objects to us. He doesn't really see and hear and feel who we are and, to the extent that we are narcissistic, we do not really see and hear and feel the true presence of others. They, we, are objects… I am not real. You are not real. You are an object to me. I am an object to you"(http//www.mentalhealth.com/disorders/dis_details.php). It is apparent that the narcissist maintains the illusion of being merged to the object. At a psychological level, he experiences difficulties in differentiating the self from others. It is the extent of this inability to distinguish personal boundaries which determines the severity of the narcissistic disorder.

The most extreme form of narcissism involves the perception that no separation exists between the self and the object. The object is viewed as an extension of the self, in the sense that the narcissist considers others to be a merged part of himself. Usually, the objects which the narcissist chooses to merge with represent that aspect of the narcissist's personality about which feelings of inferiority are perceived. For instance if a narcissist feels unattractive he will seek to merge with someone who is perceived by the narcissist to be attractive. At a slightly higher level exists the narcissist who acknowledges the separateness of the object, however, the narcissist views the object as similar to himself in the sense that they share a similar psychological makeup. In effect the narcissist perceives the object as 'just like me'. The most evolved narcissistic personality perceives the object to be both separate and psychologically different, but is unable to appreciate the object as a unique and separate person. The object is thus perceived as useful only to the extent of its ability to promote the false self.

There are also different types of narcissism. Pending the perceived needs of the environment a narcissist can develop in one of two directions. The individual whose environment supports his feeling of self-importance, and demands that he be more than possible, will most likely develop to be an exhibitionistic narcissist. Such an individual is told 'you are superior to others', but at the same time his personal feelings are ignored. Thus, to restore his feelings of pride, the growing individual will attempt to coerce the

environment into supporting his claims of superiority and perfection. On the other hand,

if the environment feels threatened by the individual's feeling of superiority, it will attempt to suppress the individual from expressing this arrogance. Such an individual learns to keep the arrogancy hidden from others, and will develop to be a closet narcissist. The closet narcissist will reveal his feelings of self-pride when he is convinced that such revelations will be safe.

Narcissist individuals also possess ways to defend themselves. Narcissistic defenses are present to some degree in all people, but are especially pervasive in narcissists. These defenses are used to protect the narcissist from experiencing the feelings of the narcissistic injury. The most pervasive defense mechanism is the arrogance defense. Its function is to restore the narcissist's inflated perception of himself. Typically the defense is utilized when someone punctures the narcissist's self-pride by saying something which interferes with the narcissist's inflated view of himself. The narcissist will then experience a narcissistic injury similar to that experienced in childhood and will respond by expanding his self-pride, thus restoring his wounded self-concept. Devaluation is another common defense which is used in similar situations. When injured or disappointed the narcissist can respond by devaluing the offending person. Devaluation thus restores the wounded ego by providing the narcissist with a feeling of superiority over the offender. There are two other defense mechanisms which the narcissist uses. The self-sufficiency defense is used to keep the narcissist emotionally isolated from others. By keeping himself emotionally isolated the narcissist's arrogance can continue to exist unchallenged. Finally, the manic defense is utilized when feelings of worthlessness begin to surface. To avoid experiencing these feelings the narcissist will attempt to occupy himself with various activities, so that he has no time left to feel the feelings of self-worthlessness.

There are also many ways to treat narcissism. The central theme in the psychodynamic treatment of the narcissist revolves around the transference relationship which emerges during treatment. In order for the transference relationship to develop the therapist must be emphatic in understanding the patient's narcissistic needs. By echoing the narcissist, the therapist remains silent and invisible to the patient. In essence, the therapist becomes a mirror to the narcissist to the extent that the narcissist derives narcissistic pleasure from confronting his alter ego.

Once the therapeutic relationship is established two transference like phenomena, the mirror transference and the idealizing transference, transference emerge. The mirror transference will occur when the therapist provides a strong sense of validation to the narcissist. Recall that the narcissistically injured child failed to receive validation for what he was. The child thus concluded that there is something wrong with his feelings, resulting in a severe damage to the child's self- esteem. By reflecting back to his accomplishments and feelings of self-pride, the narcissist's self-esteem and internal cohesion are maintained. There are three types of the mirror transference phenomenon, each corresponding to a different level of narcissism. The merger transference will occur

in those narcissists who are unable to distinguish between the object and the self. Such narcissists will perceive the therapist to be a virtual extension of themselves. The narcissist will expect the therapist to be perfectly resonant to him, as if the therapist is an actual part of him . If the therapist should even slightly vary from the narcissist's needs or opinions, the narcissist will experience a painful breach in the cohesive self-object function provided by the therapist. Such patients will then likely feel betrayed by the therapist and will respond by withdrawing themselves from the therapist.

In the second type of mirror transference, the alter-ego transference, the narcissist perceives the therapist to be psychologically similar to them. Conceptually, the narcissist perceives the therapist and themselves to be twins, separate but alike. In the alter-ego transference for the self-object cohesion to be maintained, it is necessary for the narcissist to view the therapist as 'just like me'.

The third type of mirror transference is again termed the mirror transference. In this instance the narcissist is only interested in the therapist to the extent that the therapist can reflect his feelings of self-importance. In this transference relationship, the function of the therapist is to bolster the narcissist's insecure self.

The second self-object transference, the idealizing transference, involves the borrowing of strength from the object (the therapist) to maintain an internal sense of cohesion. By idealizing the therapist to whom the narcissist feels connected, the narcissist by association also uplifts himself . It is helpful to conceptualize the idealizing narcissist as an infant who draws strength from the omnipotence of the caregiver. Thus, in the idealizing transference the therapist symbolizes omnipotence and this in turn makes the narcissist feel secure. The idealization of the object can become so important to the narcissist that in many cases, he will choose to fault himself, rather than blame the therapist.

The idealizing transference is a more mature form of transference than the mirror transference because idealization requires a certain amount of internal structure. Oftentimes, the narcissist will first develop a mirror transference, and only when his internal structure is sufficiently strong will the idealizing transference, develop an even greater sense of self-importance. The self-object transference relationships provide a stabilizing effect for the narcissist. The supportive therapist thus allows the narcissist to heal his current low self- esteem and reinstate the damaged alter ego. However, healing the current narcissistic injury does not address the underlying initial injury and in particular the issue of the false self. To address these issues the therapist must skillfully take advantage of the situations when the narcissist becomes uncharacteristically emotional, that is when the narcissist feels injured. It thus becomes crucial that within the context of the transference relationship, the therapist shift the narcissist's focus towards his inner feelings.

The prevailing opinion amongst psychodynamic theorists is that the best way to address

the narcissist's present experience, is to utilize a hands-off type of approach. This can be accomplished by letting the narcissist take control of the sessions, processing the narcissist's injuries as they inevitably occur during the course of treatment. When a mirror transference develops, injuries will occur when the therapist improperly understands or reflects the narcissist's experiences. Similarly, when an idealizing transference is formed injuries will take the form of some disappointment with the therapist which then interferes with the narcissist's idealization of the therapist. In either case, the narcissist is trying to cover up the injury so that the therapist will not notice it. It remains up to the therapist to recognize the particular defense mechanisms that the narcissist will use to defend against the pain of the injury, and work backwards from there to discover the cause of the injury .Once the cause of the injury is discovered the therapist must carefully explore the issue with the narcissist, such that the patient does not feel threatened. The following case provides a good example of the patience and skill that the therapist must possess in dealing with a narcissistic patient.(http//www.mental disorders.com/fr0/narcpersonalitydisorder.net) "…a female patient in her mid-thirties came into a session feeling elated about having gotten a new job. All she could talk about is how perfect this job was. There was no hint of introspection or of any dysphoric effect. The therapist could find no opening and made no intervention the entire session except to acknowledge the patient's obvious excitement about her new job. Then, as the patient was leaving, the therapist noticed that she had left her eyeglasses on the table. He said, "you forgot your glasses," to which she responded with an expression of surprise and embarrassment saying, "Oh, how clumsy of me." This response presented the therapist with a slight seem in the strong armor of self-pride and offered the opportunity for him to intervene. He commented, "You are so excited about the things that are happening to you that this is all you have been able to think about; in the process you seem to have forgotten a part of yourself." The patient smiled with a mixture of amusement and recognition. In this example the patient is defending throughout the session and in a moment of surprise she is embarrassed and labels herself "clumsy", giving the therapist the opportunity to interpret the defense, and how it takes her away from herself" .(Mental Health Disorders,1).The cure of the narcissist does not come from the self-object transference relationships. Rather, the self-object transference function of the therapist is curative only to the extent that it provides an external source of support which enables the narcissist to maintain his 'internal cohesion'. For the narcissist to be cured, it is necessary for him to create his own structure (the true self). The healing process is thus lengthy, and occurs in small increments whenever the structure supplied by the therapist is inadvertently interrupted.

There are also some very strange beliefs about narcissism. Existentialists perceive narcissism to be a by-product of an alienating society. It is difficult for the individual to truly be himself because society offers many rewards for the individual who conforms to its rules. Such an individual becomes alienated because he feels that society's rituals and demands grant him little significance and options in the control of his own destiny. To compensate, such an individual takes pleasure in his own uniqueness (grandiosity), he enjoys what others cannot see and control. Thus, the alienated person "sees himself as a puppet cued by social circumstances which exact ritualized performances from him. His

irritation about the inevitability of this is counterbalanced by one major consolation. This consists of his narcissistic affection for his own machinery. That is, his own processes and parts"(http//www.mentaldisorder.com/narcissism.html)

The existential treatment of the narcissist is based on the existential tenant that all existing persons have the need and possibility of going out from their centeredness to participate in other beings. The severely alienated narcissistic individual, however, does not believe in the validity of experience outside of the self. Unlike others, the narcissist does not believe that a constructive relationship with others is possible. Existentialists therefore believe that the therapist, through emphatic understanding, must create a strong bond with the narcissist, so that he can see that others have feelings too.

Millions of people suffer from narcissism. However, not all of them are being properly treated for the disorder. When physicians can better determine the exact type of narcissism and thus pinpoint the correct treatment that should be used, treatment for the patient should start being more successful. Although not much thought of narcissism, as a serious mental disorder, exists, it is certainly recognizable among the people who have it and the others who interact with them.

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Theory of One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

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Contents

1.Introduction

1.1 Objectives

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.Theory

.1 Theory of One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

.Theory of Zeeman Effort

.Procedures

.1 Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

. Fabry-Perot Interferometer

.Part 1 Helium Spectrum

.4Part t1s Order Sodium Spectrum

.5Part Yellow D-line in the Sodium Spectrum

.6Part 4 Normal Zeeman Effort

4.Experimental Results+

4.1 Data Table 1 Spectrometer Readings from the He Spectrum

4. Calculation Table 1 Grating Constant and its Standard Error

4. Calculation TableData Points for the Calibration Curve

4.4Data Table 1st Order Spectrometer Readings from the Na Spectrum

4.5Calculation TableWavelengths and Percentage Errors using 1st

Order Diffraction Grating Equation

4.6Calculation Table 4 Wavelengths and Percentage Errors using the

Calibration Curve

4.7Data Table Spectrometer Readings for Sodium D-line Spilt

4.8Calculation Table 5 Sodium D-line Spilt

4.Graph 1 Calibration Curve

5.Discussions

5.1Possible Causes of Errors and Precaution

5.Accuracy of Diffraction Spacing

5.Comparison of the Wavelength

5.4Fine Slitting cannot be observed in the 1st Order Spectrum

5.5Interference Ring Pattern and the Magnetic Flux Density

6. References

+Experiment Results consist of the log sheets given in the laboratory manual and the graphs drawn based on the findings.

Introduction/Theory

1. Introduction

It is a well-known fact that the spectral lines of helium (He) can be used to calibrate the diffraction grating spectrometer. The calibrated equipment, in turn, can be used to determine the spectrum of sodium (Na) thus enabling us to find the wavelengths of its spectral lines. Secondly, when a cadmium spectral lamp is subjected to a magnetic field, the red cadmium (Cd) line (7=64.8nm) is split into three components, called the Lorentz triplets. This occurrence is called the "normal Zeeman effect" and can be observed using a Fabry-Perot interferometer.

1.1 Objectives

The objective of this experiment is to study the emission spectroscopy and the Zeeman effect.

The experiment can be divided into five parts

i)To calibrate the spectrometer using the helium spectrum.

ii)To determine the grating constant.

iii)To determine the spectrum of sodium.

iv)To determine the fine structure splitting into the sodium spectrum.

v)To observe the normal Zeeman effect using the cadmium spectrum.

. Theory

.1 Theory of the One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

.1.1 Discrete or Line Spectrum

A hot electrical discharge, according to the electronic structure of that element, emits a spectrum of different colored lights and a limited range of discrete wavelengths in a gas of a single chemical element. This spectrum is known as the discrete spectrum or line spectrum1. An example of this spectrum is that of helium (He), whose spectrum lines are shown in Figure 1.

Color in the He spectrumWavelength (nm)

Red667.8

Yellow587.6

Green501.6

Greenish Blue4.

Bluish Green471.

Blue447.1

Figure 1. Wavelengths of light in He spectrum

.. Origin of the Sodium (Na) Spectrum

The excitation of the Na atoms can be produced by electron impact. When electrons return from the excited level E1 (high energy state) to the original state E0 (low energy state), there is an energy difference. This energy difference is released as a photon of frequency f, which can be in the form of x-rays, visible lights etc.

1 The term line spectrum is used because images produced are usually those of a narrow slit, illuminated by the light source.

Theory

Energy Difference, E1 - Eo = hf

where h = Planck's constant

To the first approximation, the electrons of the inner complete shell produce a screening effect on the position-dependent potential V due to the charge on the nucleus.

Position-dependant Potential, V(r) = - e Zeff (r)

4᠋0 r

where e is the charge of the electron.

The energy levels Enl are similar to those of the hydrogen but with reduced degeneracy of angular momentum.

Energy levels, Enl = - m e4 Znl

8h n

An approximate formulae for Enl is given below

Enl = - m e4

8h (n - 8 nl )

where 8 nl is known as the quantum effect.

The quantum effect is dependent on the n and the l. It decreases as the l increases. The values of 8 nl of the Na atom are shown in Figure .

n l014

1.50.850.01

40.00

50.00

Figure . 8 nl values of the Na atom

The interaction of the spin 0 of the electron with its orbital moment gives rise to a reduction in the degeneracy of the total angular momentum.

j = ǚl + ½ ǚ……… ǚ l - ½ǚ

where l is the orbital angular momentum of the external momentum.

If the interaction term H in the perturbation theory is considered, viz.

H = 2(r) 0 • Î

Then, the approximation formulae for Enl is given by

Enij = Enl + 2nl ½{ j(j + 1) - S(S + 1) - l(l + 1) }

And that for the fine structure splitting is given by

Enij=l+1/ - Enij=l-1/ = ½ (l + 1) 2nl

Planck's constant = 6.6 x 10-4 J

Theory/Procedures

. Theory of the Zeeman effect

The splitting up of the red cadmium (Cd) spectral line at 64.8nm into three components in the presence of a magnetic field is called the "Normal Zeeman effect". These three lines, also known as the Lorentz triplets, occurs since the Cd atom represents a single system of total spin S = 0. Without the presence of the any magnetic field, there is only one possible D ͖ P transition corresponding to a spectral line at 64.8nm. In the presence of the magnetic field, the associated energy levels spilt into L + 1 components. Radiating transitions between these components are possible, provided that the following selections are met

∆ML = +1;∆ML = 0; ∆ML = -1

Although there are permitted transitions, only of them have the same amount of energy and the same wavelength. Therefore, only these lines will be visible to us. The transition of ∆ML = 0 occurs when the spectral line, 7 = 64.8nm.

The 1st group where ∆ML = -1 gives the --line whose light is polarized vertically to the magnetic field. The middle group where ∆ML = 0 gives a <-line whose light is polarized parallel to the direction of the field. The last group where ∆ML = +1 gives a +-line whose light is again polarized vertically to the magnetic field. This transverse or longitudinal effect Zeeman effect is observed when the magnetic field is transverse or parallel to the emerging light from the etalon respectively.

For the radiating electrons, a change in energy ∆E in the presence of a magnetic field is related to the difference in wave numbers ∆J/ of one of the -lines with respect to the central line.

∆E = EL, ML - EL-1, ML-1

= hc ∆J/

The change in the energy ∆E is proportional to the magnetic flex density B.

∆E = 8B B

where 8B is the Bohr's magnetron.

Hence by combining the above two equations, we get the relationship between the difference in the wave number ∆J/ of one of the -lines with respect to the central line and the magnetic flux density B

∆J/ = 8B B

hc

The above equation shows that ∆J/ is proportional to B and by plotting ∆J/ against B, the Bohr's magnetron 8B can be determined experimentally.

. Procedures

Equipments Spectrometer / goniometer with vernier

Diffraction grating, 50 lines/mm, grating constant d = 1684nm

The Zeeman effect refers to the splitting up of the central spectral lines of the atoms within a magnetic field.

Procedures

Helium Spectral Lamp

Sodium Discharge Lamp

Power Supply for Spectral Lamps

Lamp Holders for Spectral Lamps

Tripod Base

.1 Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

A transmission diffraction grating is a piece of transparent material on which has been ruled a large number of equally spaced slits. The spacing of the slits is called the grating spacing or grating constant and is in the range of 1000 to 000 nm.

If light of wavelength 7 falls on to a grating of constant d, it is diffracted. Intensity is maximized when the following condition is satisfied

n7 =dsin n ,

where n4 is an integer (ie n = 0, 1, , .........)

Using the above equation and values from table 1, we can determine the average spacing d between any two consecutive lines of a diffraction grating assuming that the characteristic wavelength of helium is known and the characteristic wavelengths of sodium from the angles n where these intensity maximum are observed and measured.

. Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

The Fabry-interferometer has a resolution of approximately 00 000, thus it is able of detecting even wavelength changes of approximately 0.00nm.

The interferometer (or etalon) consists of two parallel flat glass plates coated on the inner surface with a partially transmitting metallic layer. Let us consider the two partially transmitting surfaces (1) and () separated by a distance t. An incoming ray making an angle  with the normal to the plates will be split into the rays AB, CD, EF, etc. The path difference between the wave fronts of two adjacent rays will result in the interference rings. The difference in the wave numbers, ∆J of two -lines can be shown to be

∆J = 0

t ∆

where 0 is the optical path difference between two adjacent rays.

 is the difference of the squares of the radii of adjacent bright interference rings.

In the absence of a magnetic field, a series of bright interference rings corresponding to 7 = 64.8nm is observed. When the field is applied, each ring splits into three rings (i.e. +, - and <-lines). Since the lights of each spectral light is polarized, whatever the position of the analyzer in the interferometer may be, each of the rings seen without the magnetic field is split into two rings in the presence of a magnetic field.

For procedures regarding,

. Part 1 Helium Spectrum

.4 Part 1st Order Sodium Spectrum

4 n is called the order number. This equation is only valid for integers values of n and for angles n up to 0°.

Procedures/Experimental Results

.5 Part Yellow D-line in the Sodium Spectrum

.6 Part 4 Normal Zeeman Effort

please refer to laboratory manual pages 11 to 14, section 5, Procedures.

4. Experimental Results

For

4.1 Data Table 1 Spectrometer Readings from the He Spectrum

4. Calculation Table 1 Grating Constant and its Standard Error

4. Calculation TableData Points for the Calibration Curve

4.4 Data Table 1st Order Spectrometer Readings from the

Na Spectrum

4.5 Calculation TableWavelengths and Percentage Errors using 1st

Order Diffraction Grating Equation

4.6 Calculation Table 4 Wavelengths and Percentage Errors using the

Calibration Curve

4.7 Data Table Spectrometer Readings for Sodium D-line Spilt

4.8Calculation Table 5 Sodium D-line Spilt

4.Graph 1 Calibration Curve

Discussions

5. Discussions

5.1 Possible Causes of Errors and Precaution

Q. Sources of errors and steps taken to minimize or eliminate them

Firstly, one possible error encountered is the parallax error (random error). This happens while we are taking reading from the vernier scale. If our eye is not placed directly over the reading to be taken and instead, viewed the reading at an angle, there is a slight degree of error. To minimize parallax error, our direction of vision should be placed perpendicular to the scale and directly above reading to be taken.

Secondly, the placement of the diffraction grating on the spectrometer can result in systematic error. A slight angle in its position could result in differences between the actual values and the experimental results. Therefore, the diffraction grating should be placed at a right angle to the spectral lamp and as accurate as possible in order to minimize this error. Also, when the reference point is set, a systematic error can occur due to precision of the setting of this point. To minimize these systematic errors, there should be only one person who constantly determines the diffraction angle and another who records readings from the vernier scale.

Thirdly, there could be a zero error. There maybe a slight zero error in the vernier scale attached to the spectrometer. In the experiment, we actually try to minimize this error by adjusting the vernier scales and making sure that there is minimum zero error and locking the scales down when recording readings.

Next, there should be a better constant between the images and the background. It is best that the background is as dark as possible, preferably black so that the reference point can be aligned accurately with the vertical cross hair.

Lastly, one last error that could happen is the backlash error. This happens when one move the telescope backwards to measure an overshot point. There will be a huge error resulting from this measurement, as our vision will be slighted shifted away and distorted. This error can be minimized by shifting the telescope in only one direction and record the measurements.

5. Accuracy of Diffraction Spacing

Q. Comment on the accuracy of d obtained by calculation and the calibration curve

The value of d obtained by calculation is 155.7nm while the standard error of d is 75. nm. There is a standard error of 4.% in the accuracy of the answer obtained from the calculation. On the other hand, the value of d obtained from the calibration curve is 141nm while the standard error of d is given by the x-intercept, which is 4nm. The standard error in is .4%. Since the standard error derived from the calibrating curve is smaller as compared to the calculated value, the accuracy of d obtained by the calibration curve is higher (standard error of .4%). However, we must bear in mind that the scale of the calibration curve is 1 unit 0.05 for the y-axis and 4 units 50 nm for the x-axis. Therefore as the scales are generally larger, the degree of accuracy decreases. So the percentage error of the calibrated curve should be slightly higher than .4%.

Discussions

5. Comparison of the Wavelength

Q. Comment on the differences and accuracy of the 1st order Na wavelengths obtained by calculations and from the calibration curve

The calculated wavelengths are relatively accurate as the percentage errors in the calculation of the wavelengths are small. Mostly, it lies lower than 1% except for that of the red image. There is a percentage error of .8%, which is relatively higher as compared to the rest of the errors but generally still a low percentage error.

The wavelengths determined by the calibration curve are fairly accurate as the percentage errors in the calculation of the wavelengths are small. Mostly, it lies lower than 1% except for that of the red and the second green image. There is a percentage error of .% and 1.5% respectively, which is relatively higher as compared to the rest of the errors but generally still a low percentage error.

The accuracy of the wavelengths obtained from the calibration curve is lower than calculation since percentage errors in determination of the wavelengths are relatively higher. This could be because the approximation had to be made while drawing the linear calibration curve joining the point and that the scales of the curve (as mentioned in the question above) is rather large and the points marked are slightly less accurate.

5.4 Fine Slitting cannot be observed in the 1st Order Spectrum

Q. Reasons for not being able to observe the fine splitting of the yellow D-line in the 1st order Na spectrum

The reason why we are not able to observe the fine splitting the 1st order is due to the fact that the difference between the diffraction angle of the shorter wavelength and that of the longer wavelength of the yellow D-line is too small. Thus, it is not noticeable by the naked eye.

Using the intensity maxima equation,

n7 = dsin

sin1 - sin = (n/d)(71 - 7),

where (71 - 7) is a small amount and constant for all the orders of n.

Therefore, sin ᠋᠃ varies proportionally to the order of spectrum, with the angle, ᠋᠃for 1st order spectrum being too small to be seen. The fine splitting of the yellow D-line is best seen with higher orders of the spectrum but unfortunately, in out experiment, we can only managed to observe the spectrum order up to the order of n = .

5.5 Interference Ring Pattern and the Magnetic Flux Density

Q. Observation and explanation for the dependence of the interference ring pattern in the Zeeman effect on the magnetic flux density.

In the absence of a magnetic field, a series of bright interference rings corresponding to 7 = 64.8nm is observed. When the field is applied, each ring splits into three rings (i.e. +, -

and <-lines). Since the lights of each spectral light is polarized, whatever the position of

Discussions/References

the analyzer in the interferometer may be, each of the rings seen without the magnetic field is split into two rings in the presence of a magnetic field.

As the current is slowly increases from zero with the magnetic flux density increasing slowly at the same time, each ring splits up into three rings. As the current is increased further (magnetic flux increases proportionally to increase in current), each of the triplets become thicker and wider apart from each other. This is because a state of quantum number n breaks up into several sub-states when the atom is in a magnetic field; their energies are slightly more or slightly less than the energy of the state in the absence of the magnetic field. This phenomena leads to a ``splitting of individual lines into separate lines when atoms radiate in a magnetic field, with the spacing of the lines dependent on the magnitude of the magnetic field.

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International marketing

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Sufficient numbers of well-trained, qualified staff are provided at each Azerbaijan facility. Capacity and congestion are not a problem at this time.

Azerbaijan has fully converted to the ICAO procedural standards of providing air traffic services with the Baku FIR. Major changes include The use of flight progress strips replacing the time-distance-altitude graphs and the application of active radar separation. Radar controllers now establish radar separation between flights, apply speed control where applicable and vector flights for separation purposes to increase sector capacity and to achieve more economic routings. Procedures in providing aerodrome control will change by implementing a local control position in the tower that is responsible for all departing and arriving aircraft landing at Bina airport. Azerbaijan has prepared a draft Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP). The draft is currently reviewed for formal governmental approval. Publication is expected in the near future.

Georgia

Georgia is assigned the airspace defined by the limits of the Tbilisi FIR. Within that airspace TMAs have established about the Batumi, Kutaisi and Tbilisi airports. See Map ES-4. Air traffic control services are provided by Tbilisi ACC, Tbilisi Approach, Tbilisi Tower, Tbilisi Krug, Kutaisi Approach, Kutaisi Tower, Batumi Tower and Military operations. See Map ES-6.

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Air traffic service at Tbilisi ACC and Approach is provided using new modern, state-of-the-art equipment. The ACC, approach, search and rescue and military coordination functions at the refurbished Tbilisi ACC facility. The approach function is in the same building on a different floor. ACC has two physical positions designated North Sector and West Sector and approach has one physical position that provides air traffic services.

Baku Krug is considered part of approach for airspace, staffing, etc. The Krug controls traffic within the boundaries of the Tbilisi TMA. Tbilisi tower provides service using the ICAO standard setup in an old facility. Local control and ground control are in the tower while PAR is located in the approach control. The number of qualified controllers required to provide services and controllers in training were not available. A new building to collocate all functions is in the construction phase. Capacity and congestion are not problematic at this time. Batumi and Kutaisi are special use airports with certain restrictions. Batumi is a special use airport with certain restrictions (Russian only language). Batumi tower provides service within the TMA surface to 000 meters, using the Russian air traffic standard setup. Kutaisi is a special use airport with certain restrictions (Russian only language). Kutaisi Approach provides service within the TMA surface to 000 meters, using the Russian standard air traffic setup.

Georgia is in the process of converting to the ICAO standards of providing air traffic services. Altitude in feet, as opposed to meters and airspeed in knots rather than kilometers are used above 10,000 feet. Georgia has published an ICAO compliant Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP).

Map ES-7 Caucasus Air Traffic Management Facilities

Caucasus Technical Infrastructure

All three Caucasus countries are currently operating a modern world-class en route air navigation system and are in the process of converting their terminal operations from Russian standards to ICAO standards. Map ES- depicts the locations of the Caucasus ATM facilities and interconnections between them and adjacent ATM facilities. Map ES-10 depicts the locations of the Caucasus en route CNS facilities and interconnections between them and ATM facilities.

Armenia

ATM Facilities. Yerevan Area Control Center (ACC), and Yerevan Approach Control APP are collocated and served by a Thales automation system installed in 000 A new Thales switch manages A/G and G/G voice and AFTN Data switching. Ground-Ground voice communications are provided between the ACC and adjacent ACCs. AFTN data service is provided through the Rostov node. Yerevan Tower, Gyumri Approach, Gyumri Tower, and Stepanavan Tower operate using Russian standards and older equipment.

A/G Communications. Yerevan, Mravian, and Andranik VHF A/G radio facilities and Yerevan HF A/G radio are remoted to the Yerevan ACC and are available at the en route sector. Yerevan Approach VHF A/G radios are local and remoted to the Yerevan Approach position in the Yerevan ACC. Yerevan Tower and Ground VHF A/G radio equipment are local and used at the Yerevan Tower. The Yerevan ATIS broadcasts local aeronautical information. The Gyumri Approach frequencies are local. Gyumri Tower and Ground are local. Stepanavan Tower radios are local.

Navigation Gyumri DVOR/DME, Yerevan VOR/DME, Andranik NDB, Megry NDB, Sisian NDB, Sevan NDB, Talin NDB, Yerevan NDB provide en route navigation. Yerevan RW0 Cat II ILS, Yerevan RW7 localizer, Gyumri RW0 ILS and Stepanavan RW1 NDB approach provide terminal navigation.

Surveillance. The Russian made TRLK-11 PSR/SSR installed in 1 provides the principle surveillance data for en route operations in the Yerevan ACC. The older Russian made Irtish provides the principle surveillance data for Yerevan terminal operations. Installation of the Mravian SSR is planned for the implementation of Surveillance Step and will be remoted to the Yerevan ACC and Gyumri App. The older Gyumri Irtish currently provides surveillance information to the Gyumri APP.

Azerbaijan

ATM Facilities. Baku Area Control Center (ACC) and Approach Control (APP) are collocated and served by a Thales Automation system installed in 000. A Thales communications switch manages A/G and G/G voice and AFTN data switching. Ground-Ground voice communications are provided between the ACC and adjacent ACCs. AFTN service is provided through the Rostov and Kiev nodes. Baku Tower is currently being converted from Russian standard operation to ICAO standard operations and installation of suitable equipment. Gyandzha Approach Control (APP), Gyandzha Tower, Nakhichevan Approach Control (APP), Nakhichevan Tower continue to operate using older Russian standard equipment. Plans are made to modernize these facilities and convert operations to ICAO standards.

Map ES-8 Caucasus ATM Facilities With Connectivity Between Them And To Adjacent ATM Facilities

Air Ground Communications. The Baku VHF A/G Radio, Gyandzha VHF A/G Radio, Nakhichevan VHF A/G Radio, Baku HF A/G Radio are or will be remoted to the Baku ACC en route sector. The Baku Approach facilities are remoted to the Baku Approach position in Baku ACC. Baku Tower and facilities are local. The Baku ATIS broadcasts local aeronautical information. Gyandzha Tower and Ground frequencies are local. Nakhichevan Tower and Ground frequencies are local.

Navigation. Baku DVOR/DME, Gyandzha DME, Akhsu NDB, Yevlakh NDB, Kala NDB, and MO NDB provide en route navigation. Baku RW16 ILS, Baku RW 18 ILS, Baku RW4 ILS, Baku RW6, Gyandzha RW0 ILS, Gyandzha RW1 NDB approach provide terminal navigation.

Azerbaijan Surveillance. The Baku En Route PSR/SSR and the Baku Aerodrome SSR are remoted to the Baku ACC where they are the principle surveillance devises for en route operations and terminal operations. Installation of the Gyandzha PSR/SSR is planned for Surveillance Step and will be remoted to the Baku ACC and the Gyandzha APP. Installation of the Nakhichevan PSR/SSR is planned during Surveillance Step and will be remoted to the Baku ACC and Nakhichevan APP. Azerbaijan is currently installing new Airsys secondary radar at Baku aerodrome and plans to move the current secondary radar system to Gyandzha.

Georgia

ATM Facilities. Tbilisi Area Control Center (ACC) and Tbilisi Approach Control (APP) are collocated and served by a Northrop Grumman Automation system installed in 000. An associated communications switch both A/G and G/G voice communications. A new AFTN data switch is planned to replace an older switch. Ground-Ground voice communications are provided between the ACC and adjacent ACCs. AFTN service is provided through the Rostov node. Tbilisi Tower uses ICAO standard procedures in an older facility with some new equipment. Kutaisi Approach Control (APP), Kutaisi Tower, and Batumi Tower continue to operate using Russian standards and older equipment.

Air-Ground Communications. The Kutaisi VHF A/G Radio, Poti VHF A/G Radio, Tbilisi #1 VHF A/G Radio, Tbilisi #1VHF A/G Radio are remoted to the Tbilisi ACC West Sector, and the ACC North Sector. Tbilisi Approach is remoted to the approach position located in the Yerevan ACC. Tbilisi Tower and Ground communications equipment are located at the Tbilisi # facility and used at the Tbilisi Tower. The Tbilisi ATIS broadcasts local aeronautical information. The Kutaisi Approach and Tower frequency equipment are local. Batumi Tower equipment is local and used by tower operations.

Georgia Navigation. Kutaisi VOR/DME, Tbilisi VOR/DME, Ali NDB, Batumi NDB, Gori NDB, Mukhrani NDB, and Tsnori NDB provide en route navigation. Tbilisi RW1L ILS, Tbilisi RW1R NDB Approach provides terminal navigation.

Georgia Surveillance Facilities. Tbilisi #1 SSR, Tbilisi # PSR/SSR, Senaki SSR data is remoted to the Tbilisi ACC automation equipment where it is fused and become the principle surveillance information for en route operations. The Tbilisi ASR data is the principle surveillance information Tbilisi terminal operations. Georgia has two new Northrop Grumman secondary radar systems.

Map ES- Caucasus En Route Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance Facilities and Connectivity Between Them and ATM Facilities

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Project Summary

The following is a list of projects proposed by the ARMATS, AZANS and SAKAERONAVIGATSIA staffs for modernization and enhancement of the Caucasus regional and individual air navigation systems. Table ES-4 lists regional projects that require cooperation between the countries to complete. Table ES-5 lists the ARMATS proposed Armenian system projects. Table ES-6 lists the AZANS proposed Azerbaijani system projects. Table ES-7 lists SAKAERONAVIGATSIA proposed Georgian an system. Project descriptions are provided in the Projects Chapter of this report.

Note that this study was to focus on en route operations in the Caucasus Region. The study observes that the countries on objective have done much. Incremental improvements are required to follow through on this objective, including some of the projects listed here. In addition it is proposed that the three countries continue the study groups concept of the ICAO CANSO even if the minister level is not pursued. These efforts would lead to continued improvements in the procedural operations in the region. The study noted that terminal systems and procedures in the Capital city airports have progressed toward ICAO standards but the systems and procedures of the other airports are dated and retain Russian standards. The Azerbaijani project proposal includes modernization activities. Armenia and Georgia may also need approach this requirement.

Table ES-4 Regional Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Comm-Establish ATC unit coordination and data exchangeUnknown

Comm-Subtotal

Nav-Assure Global Navigation Satellite ServiceUnknown

Nav-Subtotal

Sur-Establish Dual Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) coverage Unknown

4Sur-Establish the sharing of radar data

Sur-Subtotal

5ATM-Establish Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) Unknown

6ATM-Establish future Required Navigation Performance 5 (RNP-5) route(s) Unknown

ATM-Subtotal

7ATC-Establish Airborne Collision Avoidance System II (ACAS II)Unknown

ATC-Subtotal

Total

Table ES-5 Armenia Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Nav-Replace 5 Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) with Distance Measuring Equipments (DME)$400,000

Nav-Subtotal$400,000

Sur-Install Mono-pulse Secondary Radar (MSSR) at Mravian$1,500,000

Sur-Subtotal$1,500,000

Sur-Replace Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) with MSSR$1,50,000

Sur-Subtotal$1,50,000

4AIS-Implement European Aeronautical Information Services DatabaseUnknown

AIS-Subtotal

5ATC-Establish harmonized selection, recruitment and training of Air Traffic Management (ATM) staffUnknown

ATC-Subtotal

6ATM-South Gate II (ARMCASP I)Unknown

7ATM-South Gate II (ARMCASP II)Unknown

ATM-Subtotal

Total$,150,000

Table ES-6 Azerbaijan Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Comm-Install remote transceivers with back-up at Ghandja and connect transceivers in Ghandja with Baku$100,000

Comm-Subtotal$100,000

Comm-Establish Satellite Communications between Baku and Nakhichevan$100,000

Comm-Establish Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network (AFTN) capability at Nakhichevan$60,000

Comm- Subtotal$160,000

4Nav-Replace Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) at Baku$150,000

5Nav-Replace NDB at Gyandzha$150,000

6Nav-Replace NDB at Nakhichevan$150,000

7Nav-Install Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) at Ghandja$00,000

Nav-Subtotal$650,000

8Nav-Install Cat III Approach Lighting System (ALS) at Baku$100,000

Nav-Install Cat III ALS at Gyandzha$100,000

10Nav-Install Cat III ALS at Nakhichevan$100,000

11Nav-Install Cat III Instrument Landing System (ILS) at Baku$1,500,000

1Nav-Install Cat III ILS at Gyandzha$1,500,000

1Nav-Install Cat III ILS at Nakhichevan$1,500,000

14Nav-Install ADS-B for helicopter operations and SARUnknown

Nav-Subtotal$4,800,000

15Sur-Replace Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) at Gyandzha$1,50,000

16Sur-Replace Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) at Nakhichevan$1,50,000

17Sur-Replace Primary Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) at Baku$4,000,000

18Sur-Replace ASR at Gyandzha$4,000,000

1Sur-Replace ASR at Nakhichevan$4,000,000

Sur-Subtotal$14,500,000

0WX-1Install Meteorological Radar at Baku$600,000

1WX-1Install Meteorological Radar at Gyandzha$600,000

WX-1Install Meteorological Radar at Nakhichevan$600,000

WX-1Subtotal$1,800,000

ATM-1Modernize Gyandzha Approach Control (APP)$5,000,000

4ATM-1Modernize Nakhichevan Approach Control (APP)$5,000,000

ATM-1Subtotal$10,000,000

Total$,010,000

Table ES-7 Georgia Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Establish Collaborative Civil-Military Airspace PlanningUnknown

Subtotal

Total

Financial

Revenue is expected to follow the demand for services and in particular the number of long range flights transiting the region. Projections of that demand are discussed in Chapter 1 of this report.

The second important factor in assessing the alternative futures for the Caucasus Air Navigation system is how operating cost changes as the volume of air movements increases or declines. Our report makes its assumptions very explicit and bases them on the information available from other regions.

As air navigation services around the world have been privatized, restructured, and prepared for dramatic technology changes, officials have been increasingly concerned with the additional cost of managing the system as volumes increase (or decline). As mentioned above there is considerable uncertainty about whether costs increase barely at all versus half as fast as volume. These operations have too short a track record to statistically analyze changes in cost and attribute it between volume and other factors. But their insights are supportive of our assumptions.

NAV CANADA, Airservices Australia, EUROCONTROL, and the US FAA have produced a number of studies of cost and performance. Failing to fine a clear connection between cost and distance or cost and numbers of sectors. EUROCONTROL studies reveal that the countries with the largest numbers of flights have the highest costs. They do find that the cost of providing services per kilometer flown is declining significantly over time suggesting that growth could be a factor, combined with cost-saving innovations in controlling costs.

Costs in the Caucasus region have shown no discernible increase in response to the growth in volume of air traffic. In part this is a consequence of currency devaluations, which have little or no effect on revenue collected in dollars, but may result in declines in employee and other costs in dollars. Also, the growth over the past three years has not been dramatic, especially considering that the flights by national carriers, which are not charged, have been declining at the same time, probably improving reported revenue and reported flights without any increased burden on the air navigation system.

Over time, with potential air traffic increasing by nearly 100%, the extent to which costs track revenues is an important determinant of the financial health of the systems. It is recognized by all that the systems themselves are a very large fixed cost, so that costs should increase far less than in proportion to volumes. But there is considerable uncertainty about precisely how fast.

The U.S. General Accounting Office, in its 17 study of the additional cost borne by the FAA for providing Air Traffic Services to the Department of Defense (DOD) concluded that "total" costs increase about 1-to-6 with volume of air navigation services utilization. We believe that even that figure is likely to be high rather than low, due to the emphasis placed on "allocating" costs in some sort of "sharing" process, rather than determining if the costs are truly marginal. Our round-number assumptions detailed in the table located in Section 5, pg. 5-, "ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT GROWTH Percentage Change in Air Nav Revenues & Costs Associated with 100% Increase in Aircraft Movements", imply a consistent but slightly conservative figure to a 1-to-5 increase in costs relative to volume.

The Bottom Line

Doubling the number of flights and doubling revenue will produce a major boost to the air navigation organizations' bottom lines. In fact, the total net "profit" for the region as a whole would approximately triple, was no other operations changes made.

By contrast, safety, rate, or efficiency problems would suggest a far different future. Losing half of the revenue from flights through the region would result in a nearly 5% decline in the region's total margin of revenue over cost. Two of the three countries would in fact be put into a loss situation.

Table ES-4 Income Statement

Individual Country income statements are provided separately.

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What is Dementia?

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"One in ten persons over 65 and nearly half of those over 85 have Alzheimer's disease. Today, 4 million Americans have Alzheimer's disease. Unless a cure or prevention is found, that number will jump to 14 million by the year 050. Worldwide, it is estimated that million individuals will develop Alzheimer's disease by the year 05. In a national survey, 1 million Americans said they have a family member with Alzheimer's disease, and 7 million said they knew someone with the disease." (www.alzheimersassociation/treatingcognitivesymptoms.html)

What is Dementia?

Dementia is a term used to describe the loss of cognitive or intellectual function. It is a biological brain syndrome that results in cognitive impairments. It can occur as a result of a variety of neurological diseases. One of the better-known dementing diseases is Alzheimer's disease (AD). Statistically AD is the most significant dementing disease occurring in over fifty percent of demented patients. Dementia is a long-term advancing disorder. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/prog00.html)

Nineteenth Century

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The study of dementia dates back to the early nineteenth century. The great French psychiatrist Pinel attempted the initial steps at the beginning of that century. Pinel's observations led him to the conclusion that the term dementia should be used in relation to the "progressive mental changes seen in some idiots." (www.geocities.com/bigmike_75/aessays/a48.html)

Much of today's knowledge about dementia was gathered throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, and the first decade of the twentieth century. Dr. Alois Alzheimer first described Alzheimer's disease in 106, as a degenerative brain disease that usually begins gradually, causing a person to forget recent events or familiar tasks. (www.alzheimersassociation/frequentlyaskedquestions.html)

Gender/Ethnic Differences

Dementia is known as the quiet epidemic, but it affects a large portion of our population. In 18 the Canadian consensus estimate about 50,000 cases of dementia with 5,000 new cases occurring annually. There are no significant gender differences in prevalence and incidence rates for dementia as a whole. However, for AD, there is an increased prevalence in females. It is estimated that the female to male AD prevalence ratio of 1.6. (www.geocities.com/bigmike_75/aessays/a48.html)

Ethnically there seem to be important differences in both prevalence and subtype of dementia. Out of a random sample of 4,116, sixteen percent of African Americans had dementias compared to only .1 percent of Caucasians. The same study also found that mixed (dementia with both cortical and sub cortical features, and MID is a example of mixed dementia) and Multi-infarct dementia (MID) was more likely in African Americans. (www.geocities.com/bigmike_75/aessays/a48.html)

In both Europe and North America most studies conclude that AD is the most common dementing illness; whereas in Asia MID predominates. The high rate of stroke in Japan is consistent with a high MID rate. Possibly the higher level of stress in Japan leads to more strokes and therefore a higher incidence of MID. (www.geocities.com/bigmike_75/aessays/a48.html)

Risk Factors

Many conditions cause dementia. Several other diseases also cause dementia, such as Parkinson's, Creutzfeldt-Jakob, Huntington's, and multiinfarct or vascular disease, caused by several stokes in the brain. (www.alzheimersassociation/frequentlyaskedquestions.html)

Age is the biggest risk factor for developing dementia. According to a model proposed by Jorm et al. (187) a doubling of the prevalence rate occurs every 5.1 years. For the elderly population aged 65 and above the prevalence of dementia is estimated at about ten percent. Whereas in the very elderly it can reach up to forty percent. (www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/alzheimerdisease_doc.html)

Genetic factors are important in some dementing diseases. The genetic evidence in AD is less conclusive. Farrer et al. (10) suggests that AD appears as an autosomal dominant in families in which the average onset among kindred's is under fifty-eight. Supporting evidence for this comes from studies, which have linked EOAD with Down Syndrome (DS). Individuals who are afflicted with DS and who survive to age forty almost always develop AD. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

The increased risk for AD to patients born to mothers over forty is consistent with DS risk curve. It has been proven that an increased risk for dementia is dependent on a strong chemical binding between the main ingredient of SP, the Beta amyloid protein, and the APOE-e4. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/prog00.html)

Lower education has also been linked with dementia. Animal studies demonstrate a relation between environmental stimulation and dendritic growth. It is also known that dendritic growth in humans continues throughout life. Therefore possibly lower education is related to a lack of mental exercise, which could delay the on set of significant cognitive decline. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/prog00.html)

Another risk factor is depression. Four studies have reported a statistically significant association between a history of depression and AD. It is thought that depression is possibly an early start of AD. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

There is also some research suggesting that individuals with a weakened immune system may be more susceptible to develop AD. Also, dementia similar to that seen in AD may occur following a single head injury. (www.neurologychannel.com/dementia/)

Memory/Language

Memory dysfunction is often considered to be the distinguishing clinical feature of AD. Therefore, it is unlikely that a diagnosis of AD will be given unless a memory deficit is present. A common example of memory dysfunction in mild dementia includes misplacement of items without independent retrieval, failure to recall details of recent events or conversations, and frequent repetition of questions. At a more advanced stage recent events are forgotten, and even knowledge of learned material erodes. It is thought that in AD, memory failure occurs as a result of improper encoding rather than due to retention failure. Orientation dysfunction usually co-occurs with a memory deficit. There are difficulties with dates, temporal sequencing, day/night distinction, and navigating through familiar places. (www.neurologychannel.com/alzheimers/)

The most common language impairment in AD patients is dysnomia, the inability to name common objects. This occurs early in the course of AD, later on expressive and receptive aphasia are often present. (www.neurologychannel.com/alzheimers/)

Treatment

As of March 001 there were four prescription medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug (FDA) for the treatment of AD. Tacrine was approved in 1, donepezil was approved in 16, rivastigmine was approved in 000, and galantamine was approved in 001. These are known as cholinesterase inhibitors. Due to the side effects with tacrine it is very rarely prescribed. The cholinesterase inhibitors are designed to enhance memory and other cognitive functions by influencing certain chemical activities in the brain. Acetylcholine is a chemical messenger in the brain that scientists believe is important for the function of brain cells involved in memory, thought, and judgment. Acetylcholine is released by one brain cell to transmit a message to another. Once a message is received, various enzymes, including one called acetylcholinesterase, break down the chemical messenger for reuse. In the Alzheimer-afflicted brain, the cells that use acetylcholine are damaged or destroyed, resulting in lower levels of the chemical messenger. A cholinesterase inhibitor is designed to stop the activity of acetylcholinesterase, thereby slowing the breakdown of acetylcholine. By maintaining levels of acetylcholine, the drug may help compensate for the loss of functioning brain cells. (www.alzheimersassociation/treatingcognitivesymptoms.html)

Vitamin E is also prescribed with treatment in AD. The normal cell function termed "oxidative metabolism" results in byproducts known as free radicals. These are highly reactive compounds that quickly "attack" other cell substances, causing damage to the cell wall, metabolic machinery, and genetic material (DNA). The cells have natural defenses against this damage, which include the antioxidants vitamins C and E, but with age some of these protective mechanisms decrease. Brain cell damage caused by free radicals may play a role in AD. (www.alzheimersassociation/treatingcognitivesymptoms.html)

Vitamin E works as well as selegiline (a drug with antioxidant properties, used in treating Parkinson's Disease) on AD progression, it is considered to be a benign" medication without any side effects and it costs less. Therefore it is preferred over selegiline in AD treatment. (www.alzheimersassociation/treatingcognitivesymptoms.html)

Side Effects of the Prescription Medications

Symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and increased frequency of bowel movements might be expected with any cholinesterase inhibitor. There is no evidence or reason to believe that combining the drugs would be any more beneficial than taking either one alone, and it is likely that combining the drugs would result in greater side effects. (www.alzheimersassociation/treatingcognitivesymptoms.html)

Cost for Caring for a Patient with AD

According to a recent study in northern California, caring for a patient with AD costs more than $47,000 a year whether the person lives at home or in a nursing home. This study found that families of AD patients living at home spend about $1,000 annually, per family, for formal services. But when the researchers added the estimated cost of unpaid, informal care provided by family members, the total annual cost was $47,04 comparable to the cost of nursing home care. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

Emotions/Behavior

As AD alters memory and mental skills, it also begins to alter emotions and behavior. An estimated seventy to ninety percent of Alzheimer's patients eventually develop behavioral symptoms. One of the most common is agitation. In addition to agitation, Alzheimer's patients often experience feelings of anger, frustration, and depression. The disease can lead to wandering, pacing, and screaming. These symptoms of the disease and their effects on the family are thought to be one of the most common reasons that Alzheimer's patients are institutionalized. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

Who are family caregivers?

Researchers have found that the greatest number of family caregivers is wives and husbands; daughters come next. Many caregivers are single women. Researchers are now studying the experiences of caregivers from various ethnic and racial groups to see if their approaches to caregiving differ. According to several studies, African American caregivers, are less likely to see care giving as a burden and more likely to share it with a large number of extended family members, when compared to white caregivers. Scientists are exploring these differences to see if they can pinpoint the coping strategies or other factors that affect how different racial and ethnic groups perceive care giving. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

Emotional Support

One major hypothesis is that social support can help reduce stress and other care giving problems. Support groups, individual counseling, and family counseling all fall into this category, and they are being studied in various ways. To date, studies have generally shown a high level of satisfaction with support groups, although it is not clear whether they also help decrease caregivers' sense of burden. Individual counseling has alleviated specific problems such as depression. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

Services

Help from community groups or professionals is another way to ease the difficulties caregivers face. Probably the most common service, and the most studied so far, is respite care. Respite services are offered in the home, in day care facilities, and even in institutions where patients stay a limited times, usually a week or two. So far studies of respite care show a very promising benefit, and current research is looking for ways to increase its impact. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

Institutional Care

While finding services to help with family care may be difficult, Alzheimer's families say that the decisions surrounding placement in a nursing home can be even harder. Whether and when to turn to a nursing home is the first and some say the most difficult decision. (www.alzheimers.org/pubs/unravel.html)

How is AD diagnosed?

There is no single, comprehensive diagnostic test for AD. Instead, physicians or other specialists rule out other conditions through a process of elimination. They usually conduct physical, psychological, and neurological exams and take a thorough medical history. A diagnosis of possible AD can be obtained through evaluation with approximately 0 percent accuracy. The only way to confirm a diagnosis of AD is through autopsy. (www.alzheimersassociation/frequentlyaskedquestions.html)

How does AD Progress?

AD causes the formation of abnormal structures in the brain called plaques and tangles. As they gather in affected individuals, nerve cell connections are reduced. Areas of the brain that influence short-term memory tend to be affected first. Later, the disease works it way into sections of the brain that control other intellectual and physical functions. (www.alzheimersassociation/frequentlyaskedquestions.html)

AD affects people in different ways, making it difficult for medical professionals to predict how an individual's disease will progress. Some experts classify the disease by stage (early, middle, and late). But specific behaviors and how long they last vary greatly, even within each stage of the disease. (www.alzheimersassociation/frequentlyaskedquestions.html)

AD can occur in people in there 0s, 40s, and 50s. However, most people diagnosed with AD are older than 65. The early onset form of the disease that strikes younger people accounts for less than 10 percent of all reported cases. Scientists believe this variation of the disease may be genetically transmitted across multiple generations of the same family. (www.alzheimersassociation/frequentlyaskedquestions.html)

What is being done to find a cure or prevention?

Alzheimer research is being tackled from many sides. Pharmaceutical companies, the U.S. federal government, and the Alzheimer's Association are funding research to learn more about the disease process and to find compounds that will alleviate symptoms and prevent or cure the disease. (www.alzheimersassociation.com)

Incidence study of dementia and AD

The incidence of dementia and AD is significantly lower among Nigerian Africans and African Americans according to results of a five-year study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Dr. Hugh C. Hendrie, of Indiana University School of Medicine, in Indianapolis, and associates conducted a prevalence study between 1 and 1. Approximately two and five years later, they reevaluated these two populations for new cases. Included were ,45 residents of Ibadan and ,147 residents of Indianapolis. All of the subjects were 65 years or older and did not have dementia at baseline. (www.neurologychannel.com)

The subjects were assessed using the Community Screening Interview for Dementia, in which the subject undergoes a cognitive assessment and there is an interview with a relative. Incident dementia was documented in 117 African Americans and 70 Nigerians. Age-standardized, annual incidence rates for dementia were 1.5% for the Nigerians and .4% for the African Americans. Corresponding rates for AD were 1.15% and .5%. (www.neurologychannel.com)

They found a significant association between possession of the epsilon-4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene and AD in African Americans, but no significant association among Nigerians. The variation in the strength of the association between epsilion-4 and AD may account for some of the differences in incidence rates between the populations. (www.neurologychannel.com)

Personal Experience

I have a personal experience with AD. My grandfather is 8 years old. He has AD. We daily face him not knowing who we are, him asking us the same questions over and over, him not remembering where the bathroom is (so he uses the bathroom outside), him having mood swings, etc. Looking at videotape we recorded years ago shows a significant change in my grandfather's ability to function. Not only is his mind shutting down, but society also is shutting him out. Just the other day we took him to church. He was laughing throughout the sermon and we were escorted out of the church. I could not believe that we were kicked out of church. We need to focus and put forth more effort toward research on this disease.

This assignment was very difficult due to little information and research on ethnic minorities. My original topic was African American elderly and education. With that topic I could not find any information on African American elderly. Therefore I changed my topic to ethnic minority elderly and dementia diseases. Also with this topic I found very little information on specific information on ethnic minorities. I searched all possible avenues that I knew of and I found very little and limited information for this assignment.

Conclusion

Over the past few decades, Alzheimer's disease has emerged from obscurity. Once considered a rare disorder, it is now recognized as a major public health problem having a sever impact on millions of Americans and their families. AD proceeds in stages, gradually destroying memory, reason, judgment, language, and eventually the ability to carry out even the simplest of tasks. AD is a progressive disease, the symptoms growing worse with time. Symptoms progress at different rates and in different patterns. Thus one patient may begin to have problems with muscular coordination earlier than another or retain some memories longer. As the human race moves forward, one of the challenges that will remained to be solved is the dementia epidemic. The continuous increase in life span means that the number of people that are afflicted with dementia will continue to rise.

Please note that this sample paper on What is Dementia? is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on What is Dementia?, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on What is Dementia? will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Trembling Before the World: Canada'sWaning Political Soverienty

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Globalism is one of the most fashionable words in use today. The term implies a movement towards a supranational order and has enormous political, economic, and cultural implications. Globalism is fundamentally a grand homogenizing force that casts a massive and daunting specter that threatens to gobble up individual and national identities. The new world order, as it has become known, has primarily been driven by a revolution in communications and information technology. International diplomatic structures created in the wake of World War II such as the United Nations, Bretton Woods and the IMF also helped to make possible further global economic and cultural integration. Yet it was most likely technological advances that fully allowed the economic integration fueled by capitals resulting ability to go global. Huge Trans-national corporations (TNCs) were able to expand production and exploit new markets with the further liberalization of the protective trade policies of the old nation-states. Big Business and Industry suddenly, through technological advances and a prevailing neo-liberal orthodoxy concerning trade policy, have become increasingly free to invest and divest without regard to national boundaries. Civil societies in industrially advanced countries are more referred to as markets now rather than as political entities, with companies aspiring to take advantage of the economic prospects arising from the borderless world.

However, a truly borderless world would place great limits on the ability both to confine the effects of domestic economic policy within national borders and to insulate countries from foreign economic shocks. The deference of state authority over economic matters to international trade agreements has acted together with the erosion of state powers required by the need to remain competitive in the integrated global economy to weaken the states ability to intervene in the economy. These are two of the main ways that nations such as Canada have, since the rise of trade liberalization to prominence in the 180s, lost a significant amount of governmental policy autonomy. It is this concept of policy autonomy that is so essential in terms of the sovereignty of a nation and its people; it is the freedom of an elected government to implement policies in the public interest according to popular will of those they represent. For it is not simply states that are subverted by the forces of globalism, but also the democratic principles of popular sovereignty upon which most western countries are constituted.

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Nation-states are communities of people that share responsibility for their mutual well-being. The advantage of the nation-state is that it appears to best allow the people the freedom to determine their future to the best of their ability. Different nations have different standards and values; and insofar as democracy functions properly, these standards and values are reflected in the way the society functions. In Canadas case, people of common values and inclinations have built traditions and developed a legal framework for the society that has evolved. For the most part, it seems that the general will of the Canadian body politic is for the preservation of this common heritage that we have built for ourselves our culture, our moral standards, our ethics, and our customs. Yet as Donald Smiley observes,

The Canadian experience has been essentially a political experience and its concrete embodiments, distinctive public policies concerning a wide range of important matters. Modern political history might have been written around the themes of states creating nations and nations striving to become states. To repeat, the Canadian experience has been the former. (445)

One of the ways that the Canadian government attempted to forge a nation out of a mere political entity was to attempt to build a strong, integrated, and industrialized economy. Cultural and Political cohesion would follow in progression and a strong nation would be fostered. Thus, the Canadian state has always played a balanced but active role in the economic development of this country. From the building of railways, to the fostering of industry through tariff protection, to the nationalization of many industries under Crown Corporations, state intervention in the economy has long been a reality in Canada.

In the history of capitalism, the states visible hand has always played a crucial role in facilitating the operation of Adam Smiths invisible hand. The state played an important role in the early stages of the development of capitalism in the West. It contributed to establishment of the general conditions for capitalist accumulation by facilitating the separation of the worker from the means of production (through the enclosure of common lands, for example), by encouraging the free movement of labor and capital through the modification of existing settlement and welfare laws, by eliminating internal obstacles to exchange such as tolls and tariffs, by standardizing currency and exchange, by developing new modes of credit formation, and so on. State intervention in other forms such as subsidization, the underwriting of risk, protection from foreign competition, has been of vital importance in the expansion of western and Canadian capitalism. Socialization of losses, privatization of profits, stabilization of the business environment at home and abroad -- these functions summarize the role of the Canadian state under capitalism. Insofar as these and interventionist types of policies encouraged economic growth in Canada, it could be said that they were a part of the comparative advantage that made doing business in certain sectors, based in this country, a profitable venture. This comparative advantage along with Fordist corporate structures that took advantage of economies of scale combined to spur Canadian economic growth and development in this century.

Yet state interventionism is constantly under attack from foreign countries who want to allow their firms equal access to domestic markets; and from domestic capital eager to expand beyond the domestic market but stifled in doing so by foreign governments retaliatory measures against the domestic states interventionism and protectionism. It is these combined forces who spurred on greater trade policy liberalization and the greater international economic integration that came as a result. Canada, rich in the natural resources that constitute a large part of her economy, has always been disproportionately dependent on exports and thus extremely vulnerable to international price fluctuations and volatility. The professed reason why Canada has been among the major nations pushing for increased trade liberalization, has traditionally been to protect natural resources firms from threats of countervailing tariffs and trade action coming from our main trading partner, the U.S. Ironically, the resources sector has been the one where foreign countries have most complained about unfair Canadian subsidies and other policies (regional development grants, low stumpage fees, low lease rates for crown land, etc.) giving Canada a comparative advantage that would conceivably be eliminated under a normal trade liberalization scheme.

Trade Liberalization obviously takes away the right of individual states to set broad range macroeconomic policies to determine the shape of their internal economies. Ostensibly, this is to protect countries that enter into such agreements with each other from the protectionist whims of any certain country. However, it is much more likely that these trade agreements are more specifically firm-based in that they compose what amounts to a bill of "inalienable"

rights for firms trading internationally that governments cannot violate. Therefore a great deal of popular sovereignty has been ceded both to the interpretation of multilateral trade agreements such as NAFTA and the WTO, but also to trans-national corporations who are now able to use the trade liberalization agreements to play countries off against each other to compete for investment and jobs.

Globalization and the push towards increased trade liberalization clearly sets forth an agenda that further tightens the grip of capital over every aspect of peoples lives. It is intended to help the markets invisible hand to further commodify and commercialize all essential needs science, technology, education, health care, use of natural and environmental resources, etc. In addition, it further undermines the right of people, at the local, regional, and national level, to determine democratically their priorities, values, and visions. In short, it is a weapon in the hands of big business when it opposes any humane social program. Attempts to set environmental standards for firms are met with the threat of either moving production elsewhere, or taking the concerned community to the NAFTA court -- the supranational dispute-resolution panel of corporate lawyers -- and claiming compensation for lost opportunities. Higher taxes to improve the schools? Again, the same threat. Better health and safety standards? The same response, or blackmailing strategy.

The recent case in Canada involving the U.S.-based Ethyl Corporation and the gasoline additive MMT could be very telling in this regard. Fueled initially by concerns from both auto manufacturers who complained that MMT was too hard on engines, and from environmentalists and health researchers who argued that MMT contained carcinogens that put the health of Canadians at risk, the Canadian government initially banned the substance. Ethyl then launched a trade challenge to the Canadian policy under the National Treatment provisions of NAFTA demanding compensation for potential profit losses due to the "discriminatory" action taken by the Canadian government in banning MMT on health and safety grounds. The Canadian government backed down and not only compensated Ethyl but also lifted the ban, allowing the corporation to use the Canadian example as leverage with other governments contemplated a similar exercise. Whether or not MMT will ultimately, through medical research, be proven to be as extremely hazardous to health as many, including the European union and many U.S. states, believe is perhaps not as relevant as the trade issue. What is more potently learned from this case is that, in the new global order, a government elected through popular sovereignty was unable to ban a substance that it felt would harmful to the health of its citizenry.

The power of firms, in the new regime of free trade agreements as substitute for global governance, to influence a sway governments even more powerfully than the people who elect them strikes a serious blow to the notion of popular sovereignty. What has occurred as a result of these international trade regimes is what Robert Cox calls "the internationalizing of the state." In other words

Its common feature is to convert the state into an agency for adjusting national economic practices and policies to the perceived exigencies of the global economy. The state becomes a transmission belt from the global to the national economy, where heretofore it had acted as the bulwark defending domestic welfare from external disturbances. (Cox, 4)

Indeed this appears to be the case as we are being constantly told that we need to adapt our ways to the new rules of the global economy by our political and business elites. The major turning point in Canada's new relationship to the global economy was the debate leading up to the signing of the Canada-U.S. Free trade Agreement in 18.

However, Canada has traditionally and historically suffered a sovereignty deficit as a result of our close relationship to the United States, the most politically, economically and culturally dominant nation on the planet. Pierre Trudeau once described the Canadian-American relationship as being akin to "sleeping with the elephant." Geographic proximity is one obvious feature that binds us to the Americans. Greater distances between markets mean larger costs of transporting goods and services between them, encumbering trade and the development of close economic ties. But the United States and Canada share a long border, much of which is easily negotiated by land or water. Moreover, some Canadian cities are closer to urban centers in the United States than they are to other major Canadian cities. Indeed, over three-fourths of Canadas population lives within 100 miles of the U.S. border. The nearness of the two countries extends beyond mere physical proximity Canada and the United States share a number of social, political, and cultural traditions, and a majority of people in both countries speak the same language. Over 80% of out trade is with the United States, most of which is either intrafirm trade between subsidiaries or natural resources. For Canadians, the global economy generally means the Canada-U.S. economy. And because we live in such an export dependent economy, Canadian governments have generally had to bow to American whim or else risk the catastrophic results of a major trade war. Already the country with the largest amount of Foreign (mostly American) ownership and control of our economy, trade liberalization further encourages American takeovers of Canadian firms. To the extent that certain firms do favour operations within the country they are based and carry great influence over the political processes there, this can only mean further losses of sovereignty with more foreign corporations having greater say over the policies of domestic governance.

Popular sovereignty represented by democratic forms of government are under attack all over the globe but especially so in Canada where our relationship with the United States has pushed the point home even more so. The meaning of popular sovereignty has shifted severely away from the democratic to the consumption-based market concept of sovereignty. Robert Cox argues that

Ideological Mystification has obscured the fact that a stronger case can probably be made for the pairing of political authoritarianism with market economics. . . Democracy has been quietly redefined in the centres of world capitalism. The new definition is grounded in the 1th century separation of economy and politics. Key aspects of economic management are therefore to be shielded from politics, that is, from popular pressures. (50)

The neo-liberal shift in prevailing sensibilities has helped to facilitate this shift in the notion of democracy. The interesting thing about this fact is that, though neo-liberal political groups advocate completely laissez-faire and libertarian styles of political economy, they often combine these efforts with more populist efforts at promoting "grassroots democracy." These more superficial efforts include such as advocating referenda, and latching on to hot-button, conservative, social issues such as pro-life movements, crime control, and "protection of the taxpayer."

Yet there is little doubt that individual citizens, not only in Canada but all over the world, have lost a great deal of the sovereignty they once enjoyed in terms of determining their own political, economic and cultural futures. Increased trade liberalization has lead to several problems for the popular sovereignty of individuals in society. First, international trade agreements have weakened the power of elected governments to intervene in their economies. Second, the nation state has been transformed from an advocate for domestic interests against external pressures to an unquestioning facilitator of the "realities of the global economy" onto the internal institutional structures of their countries. Third, the growth and prominence of firms on a global, trans-national scale has forced countries to adopt neo-liberal economic policies to lure firms to locate and invest in their national economies. Since ordinary individual citizens are almost completely alienated from any sort of control neither over these trade agreements nor over trans-national firms who hold so much control over the political and economic structures of society, a severe democratic deficit can be said to exist. Those who advocate continued neo-liberal freer trade policies might argue that the market is a supremely democratic structure in itself and if you do not like a particular firm, do not support it with your hard-earned money. To paraphrase George Grant, globalism is the view of those who do not see what all the fuss is about -- the purpose of life is consumption, and therefore borders are an anachronism. Yet this overestimates the power of groups (such as environmentalist, NGOs, the media) that could rally to oppose a certain firm's arbitrary actions. The nation-state is a structure that is already in place to provide this type of action for the public interest. It is a relatively democratic institution, unlike the market or a firm, and we already know that it can be a reasonably effective manager of all the interests at play in a society. Canada itself, is a relatively unimportant institution that, upon reflection, is probably doomed to dissolve into its various provincial components eventually. What is more important than the survival of Canada as a nation is the survival of individuals grouped into a political society to be able to maintain any semblance of self-determination in the face of the authoritarian, market-based, global economy.

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