This report describes hot to purchase a computer for each different customer to meet different requirements.

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1.Introduction

This report describes hot to purchase a computer for each different customer to meet different requirements.

It will describe how to purchase a computer step by step from the original plan. This report will discuss three different customers option their owner computers.

Computer hardware components based on the software packages, in order to get high function suited to personal requirements while using their budget.

Cheap Custom Essays on This report describes hot to purchase a computer for each different customer to meet different requirements.

Customers 1Lorissa

.1 Identify all software packages

Because Lorrisa wants a new PC, her requirements are to produce basic text-based documents, run an accounting package, and access the internet, so in my opinion and my recommendation if for the all software packages with in the operating system

Windows XP (Home Edition)

Microsoft Money 00 standard

Microsoft Word 00

. List all software packages are require for system

Basic software requirements. It¡¯s the requirement for the how to choose the hardware components properly.

First software package is Microsoft Windows XP (Home Edition), this require hardware

ɨPC with 00 megahertz (MHz) or higher processor clock speed recommended; -MHz minimum required; Intel Pentium/Celeron family, AMD K6/Athlon/Duron family, or compatible processor recommended

ɨ18 megabytes (MB) of RAM or higher recommended (64 MB minimum supported; may limit performance and some features)

ɨ1.5 gigabyte (GB) of available hard disk space.

ɨSuper VGA (800 ¡Á 600) or higher resolution video adapter and monitor

ɨCD-ROM or DVD drive

ɨKeyboard and Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device (Microsoft Corporation,00

http//www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/home/howtobuy/upgrading/sysreqs.asp)

Second software package is Microsoft Money 00, which requires the following hardware

ɨComputer/ProcessorMultimedia PC with Pentium 166 or

higher processor required; Pentium

II 00 recommended

ɨMemory MB of RAM required; 64 MB

recommended

ɨHard Disk75 MB free hard disk space, plus

50 MB for Internet

Explorer 6.0 or later (included on

the CD) if not

already installed, plus an additional

68 MB if running

instructional videos and audio help

from hard drive

ɨDrive X or faster CD-ROM drive

ɨDisplay SVGA Color Monitor with minimum

56 colors, capable of displaying

800 X 600 resolution, 16-bit color

recommended

ɨOperating System Windows 8, Windows 000,

WindowsME, or Windows xp

ɨPeripherals Microsoft Mouse or compatible

pointing device

ɨMiscellaneous 8.8 Kbps or higher-baud modem

required for

Internet connectivity and online

banking

Audio Board with headphones or

speakers required for audio

Some features require Microsoft

Passport

Internet functionality requires an

internet service

provider (ISP); Local and long

distance telephone toll

charges may apply

(Microsoft Corporation, 00 http//www.microsoft.com/catalog/display.asp?site=115&subid=&pg=)

Computer/Processor

The recommended system is Windows 000 Professional

on Pentium 1 MHz ora computer with a Pentium III

processor and 18MB of RAM. higher processor required.

Memory

RAM requirements for Microsoft Word depend upon the

operating system used, plus an additional 8 MB of RAM

for each Office application running simultaneously for

Windows 8 and Windows 8 Second Edition, 4 MB of

RAM for the operating system; for Windows Me, Windows

NT Workstation or Server 4.0, MB of RAM for the

operating system; for Windows 000 Professional, 64 MB

of RAM for the operating system.

Hard Disk

Hard-disk space requirements will vary depending on

configuration. 150 MB of available hard-disk space is

required for the default configuration of Microsoft Word

with 115 MB on the hard disk where the operating system

is installed. Customers without Windows 000, Windows

Me or Office 000 SR1 will require an extra 50 MB of

hard-disk space for the System Files Update Custom i

nstallation choices may require more or less hard-disk space.

Drive

CD-ROM Drive

Display

Super VGA (800x600) or higher-resolution monitor

with 56 colors.

Operating System

Microsoft Windows 8, Windows 8 Second Edition,

Windows Me, Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 6 or

greater, or Windows 000 or greater. On systems running

Windows NT 4.0, the version of Internet Explorer must be

upgraded to at least 4.01 with Service Pack 1.

Peripherals

Microsoft Mouse, Microsoft IntelliMouse®, or compatible

pointing device.

Miscellaneous

Multimedia Multimedia computer required for sound and

other multimedia effects. A hardware accelerated video card

or MMX processor will provide improved graphical rendering

performance. Pentium II 400MHz or higher processor, 18

or more MB of RAM, close-talk microphone and audio output

device required for speech recognition.E-mail & Internet

Microsoft Exchange, Internet SMTP/POP, IMAP4, or

MAPI-compliant messaging software for e-mail; Microsoft

Exchange Server required for certain advanced collaboration

functionality in Microsoft Outlook; some Internet functionality

may require Internet access via a 14.4kbs or greater modem

or a high speed connection, and payment of a separate fee to a

service provider; local charges may apply.Handwriting Graphics

tablet recommended for handwriting input features.

The last software package to install into computer is Microsoft Word 00. The required hardware is

(Microsoft Corporation, 00 http//www.microsoft.com/catalog/display.asp?site=1087&subid=&pg=)

. Based on the all software packages required for the hardware, all the

hardware components are defined

Albarton KM66 PRO, Socket 46 Motherboard

Duron AMD K7 1.GHz,00MHz,Socket 46 CPU

Legend 18MB, SDRAM PC1 Memory

Seagate 0 GB U-Series, ATA 100, 5400RPM Hard disk

Mitsubishi diamond 5x, IDE CD-ROM Drive

Dynalink Internal 56K PCI Modem

Case with PUS is R System Esprit, mid tower,00w, ATX PSU

ViewSonic 17¡± E70 digital Monitor

Microsoft Internet Keyboard

Microsoft optical wheel Mouse

(Ascent Technology Ltd, 00

http//www.ascent.co.nz

Advantage® Computers Ltd

http//www.mallnz.co.nz/sites/advantage/)

.4 Suppliers to obtain the lowest price are from the internet

Suppliers

Hardware

ComponentsPricespyAscent technology

Motherboard$15.66$15.66

CPU$81.00$7.

Memory$77.48$77.47

Hard disk$11.8$10.5

CD-ROM$44.16$46.80

Modem$55.00$57.60

Case with PSU$5.00$6.

Monitor$1.$0.5

Keyboard$48.8$5.4

Mouse$40.00$6.4

Suppliers

Software

packagesPricespyAscent technology

Windows XP

(Home Edition)$488.75$45.

Money 00$44.56$4.4

Word 00$47.11$44.0

Total price$1.8$184.85

.5 I suggest Lorissa to buy software from the sellers of Pricespy the web

site, and some hardware components as CD-ROM, Modem, Case with

PSU , Monitor, Keyboard and Mouse are purchase from the Pricespy

web site, others hardware components are purchase from Ascent

technology Ltd, that choice can save money.

.6 For Lorissa, because of cost, Lorissa¡¯s new computer is limited by money,

some older version computer components will be purchased. Because of the high cost of the software package and Lorissa is the first time to purchased a computer,

Customer Colin

Colin is a design engineer and works from home, and his current computer is old, he wants to replace it to because a high performance PC, he uses the PC for design, so it is a high requirement for the PC¡¯s hardware components.

4.1 Identify all software packages

Colin is use PC for design, and he has the two design software are Solidworks 00 and CorelDRAW Graphics Suite11, as following is each software requires the PC¡¯s hardware

First is the Solidworks 00 require the hardware

CPU Intel Pentium ® or AMD Athlon͐ (5) - based computers

Supported Operating Systems (6)(7)SolidWorks 00 (7) SolidWorks 004 (7)First version of SolidWorks after 004(7)

Windows XP Professional (1) Windows XP Professional (1)Windows XP Professional (1)

Windows 000 Professional (1)Windows 000 Professional (1) Windows 000 Professional (1)

Windows NT 4.0 ()Windows NT 4.0 ()(8)

Windows ME ()Windows ME () (8)

Windows 8 SE ()(4)(8)(8)

RAM V Small parts and assemblies (1000 components and 00 feature) - minimum 18MB, 56MB or more recommended.

V Assemblies¡¯ greater than 1000 components and parts greater than 00 features, 51MB or more recommended.

V Assemblies¡¯ greater than 500 components and parts greater than 1000 features, 1GB or more recommended.

Video A tested OpenGL workstation graphics card and driver combination. To view the current list of tested adapters and drivers.

Other Req.V If you are using Design Tables or Bills of Materials, you must have the following; Microsoft Office XP, Microsoft Office 000, or Microsoft Office 7 Service Release (SR-).

V If you are using the SolidWorks online help, or opening SolidWorks files from Internet Explorer, you must be using Internet Explorer version 4.0 or later. Internet Explorer version 5.5 or higher is recommended.

1)Recommended operating system.

()SolidWorks will not install unless Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 6 or higher is installed.

()Not recommended for production use.

(4)Windows 8 SE (Second Edition) is the only version of Windows 8 that is supported.

(5)For systems running the AMD Athlon processor, you must be running Windows XP, Windows 000 or Windows NT.

(6)Includes SolidWorks, SolidWorks Office, SolidWorks Office Professional, COSMOSWorks, SolidWorks Viewer, and the SolidWorks Explorer.

(7)eDrawings and eDrawings Professional support the following operating systems; Windows XP Professional (1), Windows 000 Professional (1), Windows NT 4.0, Windows 8 SE, and Windows ME.

(8)Not supported in this release

(SolidWorks Corporation 00

http//www.solidworks.com/pages/services/SystemRequirements.html)

The other Software is CorelDRAW Graphics Suit 11, that require the hardware as following lists

Windows

Pentium II 00Mhz or faster processor

Microsoft Windows 8, NT 4.0, 000, Me, or XP

18 MB RAM

Mouse or tablet

CD-ROM drive

104x768 screen resolution

00MB hard disk space

(Amazon.com. Inc. or its affiliates, 16-00

http//www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00006LH7/10-401-601466?v=glance&s=software&vi=tech-data&me=ATVPDKIKX0DER)

In my opinion, I recommended Colin to purchase another design software is Adobe Photoshop 7.0, this software is a better design tool can modify and process complex image, so I suggest Colin to buy it. This software requires the hardware components are

Intel® Pentium® III or 4 processor

Microsoft® Windows® 8, Windows 8 Special Edition, Windows Millennium Edition, Windows NT with Service Pack 6a, Windows 000 with Service Pack , or Windows XP

18 MB of RAM (1 MB recommended)

80 MB of available hard-disk space

800 x 600 color monitor with 16-bit color or greater video card

(Adobe Systems Incorporated, 00

http//www.pacific.adobe.com/products/photoshop/systemreqs.html)

Based on the three software above, the operating system absolutely choose Microsoft Windows XP (Professional)

4. Think about which type of hardware should be purchased

As this computer is used by design engineer, so it is should use high performance CPU, as use for design, it requires high quality video card and monitor, and the memory should be 56MB or higher, hard disk should be 10GB or higher. For storage mass information, should purchase a CD-R/RW/DVD combo drive.

4. The following hardwares will be purchased to replace the old

Philips 10P40 1 monitor, .5dp, 180x104, Real Flat

Asus P4C800-E Deluxe motherboard, Socket 478, 800MHz FSB, 4xDIMM, DDR, 8XAGP, 5xPCI, 4xUSB , Firewire, Audio, SATA-150, LAN, ATX, ATA1

Kingmax 51MB, DDR-SDRAM, DIMM, PC400, Memory

Intel Pentium 4, .0 GHz CPU, 800 Mhz, FSB, Northwood Socket 478, Retail pack with fan

Asus GeForce FX V560 TD video card, 18MB DDR, GeForce FX 5600, 8XAGP, TV OUT, DVI

Maxtor DiamondMax Plus , 10 GB, 7,00rpm, 81K cache, ATA-1, IDE, Fluid Bearing Hard Disk Drive

Dlink DSL-500 ADSL, External, Ethernet Router

Samsung SM-5B CD-Writer, 5R/5W/4RW/16DVD, Internal, IDE

4.4 Following information is the price of all the above hardwares and software from the two New Zealand suppliers on the internet

Suppliers

Hardware

ComponentsAscent TechnologyPricespy

Monitor$658.$658.

Motherboard$500.64$500.64

Memory$0.40$0.40

CPU$8.$8.4

Video card$88.64$88.64

Hard Disk Drive$.$.4

Ethernet Router$81.1$81.1

Combo drive$167.58$167.07

Suppliers

SoftwareAscent TechnologyPricespy

Office XP$81.4$6.5

Photoshop 7.0$4.6$60.75

Total$400.85$41.55

4.5 Compare with two computer suppliers, that¡¯s the benefit to choose to buy at Ascent Technology Ltd, because in there the price is lower than another supplier.

Colin plan $400 to purchase hardware to replace his computer, now he nearly has $00 left, and I suggest him to purchase a scanner and a inkjet printer, because he is a design engineer, and some time he will use scanner to scan the photo or any other images, and the printer can print the better quality picture after modified.

4.6 A short report for Colin¡¯s new PC

Because the PC is use to design, and the design softwares are the system should has high performance, so chose the Philips 10P40 1 5dp, 180x104, Real Flat monitor, it¡¯s the large screen make Colin watch comfortable, the high resolution achieved the software ¡°CorelDRAW Graphics Suit 11¡±requirements.

High CPU speed and large memory are offer better operating performance, high quality of the Video card make the screen easier and more smooth. And the DVI port is easy for later to upgrade the CRT monitor to the LCD. Large capacity of the hard disk is able to save more information.

Customer Myself

I am a oversea student to study at New Zealand, so I only use my computer to do some word documents, write E-Mail, go to the internet, so I decide to spend $000 -- $500 (ex GST)to purchase a new computer.

5.1 Identify the software package

Only for go to the Internet, type the E-Mail and do some word documents, I will use the Microsoft Office XP, and the operating system I would like to use Microsoft Windows XP(Home Edition), and I found these two softwares had system requirements, as following

Microsoft Windows XP(Home Edition) requires the system is

PC with 00 megahertz (MHz) or higher processor clock speed recommended; -MHz minimum required; Intel Pentium/Celeron family, AMD K6/Athlon/Duron family, or compatible processor recommended

18 megabytes (MB) of RAM or higher recommended (64 MB minimum supported; may limit performance and some features)

1.5 gigabyte (GB) of available hard disk space.

Super VGA (800 ¡Á 600) or higher resolution video adapter and monitor

CD-ROM or DVD drive

Keyboard and Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

(Microsoft Corporation,00

http//www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/home/howtobuy/upgrading/sysreqs.asp)

Microsoft Office XP requires the system is

Computer/ProcessorComputer with Pentium 1 megahertz (MHz) or higher processor; Pentium III recommended

MemoryFor all Office XP suites

RAM requirements depend on the operating system used

Windows 8, or Windows 8 Second Edition

4 MB of RAM plus an additional 8 MB of RAM for each Office program (such as Microsoft Word) running simultaneously

Windows Me, or Microsoft Windows NT®

MB of RAM plus an additional 8 MB of RAM for each Office application (such as Microsoft Word) running simultaneously

Windows 000 Professional

64 MB of RAM plus an additional 8 MB of RAM for each Office application (such as Microsoft Word) running simultaneously

Windows XP Professional, or Windows XP Home Edition

18 MB of RAM plus an additional 8 MB of RAM for each Office application (such as Microsoft Word) running simultaneously

For information on memory requirements for Office XP Developer, see our Office XP Developer system requirements page.

Hard DiskHard disk space requirements will vary depending on configuration; custom installation choices may require more or less. Listed below are the minimum hard disk requirements for Office XP suites

Office XP Standard

10 MB of available hard disk space

Office XP Professional and Professional Special Edition⊃

45 MB of available hard disk space

An additional 115 MB is required on the hard disk where the operating system is installed. Users without Windows XP, Windows 000, Windows Me, or Office 000 Service Release 1 (SR-1) require an extra 50 MB of hard disk space for System Files Update.

For information on hard disk requirements for Office XP Developer, see our Office XP Developer system requirements page.

Operating SystemWindows 8, Windows 8 Second Edition, Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me), Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 6 (SP6) or later,⊃ Windows 000, or Windows XP or later.

For information on operating system requirements for Office XP Developer, see our Office XP Developer system requirements page.

DriveCD-ROM drive

DisplaySuper VGA (800 x 600) or higher-resolution monitor with 56 colors

PeripheralsMicrosoft Mouse, Microsoft IntelliMouse®, or compatible pointing device

(Microsoft Corporation, 00

http//www.microsoft.com/office/evaluation/sysreqs.asp)

5. choose the correct computer hardware

R System Audi XP, Mid Tower, 00W, ATX PSU, Side Window, Silver

Asus CRW-54A CD Writer, 5R/5W/4RW, Internal, IDE

Intel Celeron II .6 GHz CPU, 400 MHz, FSB, Socket 478, Retail pack with fan

Maxtor DiamondMax Plus 8, 40 GB, 7,00rpm, 048K cache, ATA-1, IDE, Fluid Bearing Hard Disk Drive

Legend 56MB, DDR-SDRAM, DIMM, PC400

Dlink DFM-560I+, 56K, Internal, PCI Modem

Asus P4C800 motherboard, Socket 478, 800MHz FSB, 4xDIMM, DDR, 8XAGP, 4xUSB , Audio, SATA-150, LAN, ATX

Asus GeForce 4 V180SE video card, 64MB DDR, GeForce 440MX, 8XAGP, TV Out

Philips 107S56 17 monitor, .5dp, 180x104, CRT, Black

Microsoft Internet Keyboard, 10 Hot Keys, PS/

Microsoft Basic Optical Mouse, PS/USB

5. Obtain the hardware and software price from the two New Zealand suppliers

Supply

HardwareAscent Technology Ltdpricespy

Case with PSU$14.50$140.00

CD-R/W$5.7$4.18

CPU with fan$14.70$1.

Hard Disk Drive$11.4$11.4

Memory$110.0$110.0

Modem$77.6$80.00

Motherboard$45.68$45.68

Video card$111.84$114.67

Monitor$61.0$61.0

Keyboard$5.4$70.

Mouse$6.4$.00

Supply

SoftwareAscent Technology Ltdpricespy

Microsoft Windows XP(Home)$45.$488.75

Microsoft Office XP$81.4$6.5

$75.5$540.4

5.4 Suggest myself

Compare with two hardware suppliers, I will buy Case with PSU, CD-RW, CPU with fan from pricespy sellers, the other hardware I will purchase at Ascent Technology Ltd.

5.5 A short report for my computer and what about my thinking

I only use PC to process word documents and type E-Mail, so I will not get a high performance for my computer. I choose the motherboard is do good because I think about if I want to upgrade my PC in the future, I can still use this motherboard and will not change, I use the CD-RW to replace the Floppy disk drive to store information, a good modem can supply a stable environment to go to internet.

Conclusion

To conclude, the Operating Systems Purchasing Assignment reveals the following

Understand each customer¡¯s requirements, and how much they can offer, what area heshe use the computer

Based on the requirements, identify which software the customer should use,

Each software has a requirement for the system, gather all the requirements then determine every hardware should be selected

Get and check the price from market, obtain the lowest price for each hardware components

Assemble and install to computer, hand to the customer

(Microsoft Corporation,00) Windows XP Home Edition System Requirements Retrieved August 15, 00, from http//www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/home/howtobuy/upgrading/sysreqs.asp

(Microsoft Corporation, 00) Microsoft® Money 00 Standard Requirements. Retrieved August 15, 00, from

http//www.microsoft.com/catalog/display.asp?site=115&subid=&pg=

(Microsoft Corporation, 00) Microsoft® Word version 00 Requirements Retrieved August 15, 00, from

http//www.microsoft.com/catalog/display.asp?site=1087&subid=&pg=

(SolidWorks Corporation 00) Support - System Requirements. Requirements Retrieved August 15, 00, from

http//www.solidworks.com/pages/services/SystemRequirements.html

(Amazon.com. Inc. or its affiliates, 16-00) System requirements. Retrieved August 15, 00, from

http//www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00006LH7/10-07448-7441?v=glance&s=software&vi=tech-data&me=ATVPDKIKX0DER

(Adobe Systems Incorporated, 00) System requirements. Retrieved August 15, 00, from

http//www.pacific.adobe.com/products/photoshop/systemreqs.html

(Microsoft Corporation, 00) System Requirements. Retrieved August 15, 00, from

http//www.microsoft.com/office/evaluation/sysreqs.asp

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SLAVERY AND REVOLUTION: FREEDOM TO THE OPRESSED?

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The Haitian revolution, which was completed in 1804, saw the end of slavery and French rule in the Caribbean island of Saint Domingue. This was, undoubtedly, freedom to the oppressed. The end of forced and savage working conditions. The end of being ruled by some far off country. The freedom of former slaves to govern their own state and thus fend for themselves in the world. This freedom was not granted by the French revolution. It was only achieved by emancipation from revolutionary France which had been itself, forged on the very principals on Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. So why did the French Revolution not extend to the freedom of slaves? And what was the 'freedom' that the slaves achieved and where did it come from? One of the most important factors, which must not be overlooked in discussing the revolutionary predicament of the colonies, was their financial importance to the French economy. The support of the wealthy seaports appeared crucial to the future of the revolution . This creates a paradox, of which there are many associated with the topic of slavery and revolution, if France was to hold up the principals of the revolution in ending slavery it risked a serious financial undermining of the revolution at home. The French perception of the slaves themselves also went a long way in preventing the abolition of slavery.

A stark difference can be drawn between the social tensions present within France at the time of revolution and those of the French colonies at a similar time. In France the peasantry wanted to end the old regime, thus leaving behind feudal obligations. In Saint Domingue there were no peasants or nobles but only slaves and planters. Planters were generally thought of as part of the third estate though some had a slightly higher opinion of their own social status. This is understandable as in the isolated society of saint Domingue white planters occupied an important social position. A position far superior to slaves which they intended to keep. In France revolutionaries were striving for egalitarianism, to remove privileges and provide equality before the law. The most vocal and powerful activists in the colonies demanded a relaxation of government controls but certainly not equality. Not even within the colonial free society let alone the slaves . This shows the difficulties of analysing the revolution of Saint Domingue when most accounts of the time were written from a European and in particular, French perspective. Events, trends and feelings were moulded to fit in with the ones current in France.

Elizabeth Colwill draws an interesting comparison between the place of women and the place of Negroes in revolutionary thinking. Women, by nature, have been given qualities such as the 'tender care owing to infancy, the details of the household, [and] the sweet anxieties of maternity'. Men, on the other hand, are endowed with a flair for 'hunting, farming, [and] political concerns' . With these descriptions republicans such as Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, representative of the Paris Commune, were able to draw an undeniable natural definition between the male and the female species. This enables a multifaceted concept of freedom where everyone could obtain it, through the revolution, provided they keep within their own naturally ordained sphere. With men's political/public bending and woman's domestic/apolitical bending there was no need to have women represented in the National Assembly. This same idea was used to justify the continuation of slavery. That fact that "Nègre" were 'peculiarly suited for enslavement' was seen by some as a natural truth much like of women and their peculiar child birth qualities. Thus, with African people being naturally slaves, they could have freedom within their natural sphere without the abolition of slavery. This idea can be taken a step further to suggest that the abolition of slavery would actually deny the Negroes freedom as it could only be achieved within their natural role as slaves. This is pushing the argument to a rather absurd extreme but it does, however, illustrate how far the revolutionary government was prepared to go to both maintain, or appear to maintain, the principals of the revolution and simultaneously retain colonial revenue.

In investigating the perception of Negroes in the French psyche the original encyclopaedia is a very telling piece. The entry under "Negre" describes blacks in visual animalistic terms. It appears that, like with animals, the main things that define them are their appearance, and habitats. By defining Negroes in terms of black skin, 'large and flat noses, thick lips, and wool instead of hair' as well as some geographical information on where they might be found and regional differences, Negroes are placed squarely in the animal category. As it was featured in the encyclopaedia this was, in theory, an enlightened view. It is easy to see here how French could have felt justified in owning and controlling slaves, just as they were justified in owning and controlling horses or livestock.

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C.L.R. James, a West Indian Marxist writer, offers some extremely graphic descriptions of slave abuses in his account of the Saint Domingue revolution. 'Slaves were trapped like animals, transported in pens, worked along side an ass or horse and beaten with the same stick, they were stabled and starved but they remained, despite their black skin and curly hair; human beings; with the intelligence and resentments of human beings' . It was not that planters forgot that the slaves were human, but more naturally that they believed they were some kind of subhuman form. As confirmed by the encyclopaedia, at the time of the France revolution it was a fundamental truth that blacks and humans were different. The fact that half of all Africans stepped onto French colonial soil in chains would die within eight years from overwork, malnutrition, and disease, shows how poorly the slaves were treated . James goes on to describe more graphically the abuses slaves were allegedly subjected to. 'Their masters poured burning wax on their arms and hands and shoulders, emptied the boiling cane sugar over their heads, burned them alive, roasted them on slow fires, filled them with gun powder and blew them up with a match, buried them up to the neck and smeared their heads with sugar that the flies might devour them' . He claims that these kind of practices were common place in slave society but this may be seen as an exaggeration, characteristic of such a passionate writing style as James. It is more likely these practices were seldom seen but often talked about especially amongst those antislavery advocates in France. It was possible that accounts such as this acted as propaganda in the growing opposition to slavery. The idea that even animals should not be treated like this enabled one to both subscribe to an animalistic view of Negroes and act for the abolition of slavery at the same time.

Michel-Rolph Trouillot writes, in a very opinionated way of the unthinkability of the Haitian revolution. He draws the important distinction between the standards of people in the past and the modern standard of the mid 10s when his book, Silencing the Past, was published. He places conceptions of slavery and equality into a late 18th century framework where our own modern views on the concepts would have been unthinkable. Trouillot defines the unthinkable as an inconceivable possibility. For contemporaries of the Haitian revolutionary period, to imagine the possibility of the relative equality which the world enjoys today was an intellectual impossibility. The unthinkability of the Hiatian revolution is panted in rather black and white terms by Trouillot. He states that the Haitian revolution 'entered history with the peculiar characteristic of being unthinkable' . As early as 170, however, left wing newspapers had begun to attack slavery and the popular conceptions of Negroes. An article in the influential newspaper Revolutions de Paris stated that is not true that Negroes are narrow minded. Experience has proven that they have succeeded in the sciences...As for what people say of their wickedness, it will never equal the cruelty of their masters' . This shows that not all French men found the Haitian revolution to be an unthinkability. Rather then unthinkable, the freedom of the slaves may be more appropriately seen as a many faceted difficulty. Geographical Isolation, racial prejudice, economic concerns and the very concept of freedom itself made it difficult for anyone, French, Mulatto, slave, or otherwise to define what freedom for the slaves might actually consist of.

Throughout historical writings on the emancipation of the slaves of the Caribbean colonies there is much reference to the ideas of freedom and equality. These are often implied to be both the essence of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. They are also suggested to be the revolutionary ideas that the slaves of Saint Domingue picked up on in fighting for their liberation. When looked at closely the Declaration shows inconsistencies, which can be interpreted both for and against the abolition of slavery.

Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only on the general good [Article I]

The word 'men' in itself can be interpreted to exclude all women and Negroes. On the other hand it could be seen as referring to all human beings in general which would include women and probably blacks as well. Although many citizens of revolutionary France saw them as subhuman, most would have conceded that the African species did fit in the wider category of human being. The second part of this article is very contentious when looked at in the context of slavery. The 'general good' must be defined to make any sense of it. Is the general good what is good for everyone including slaves? Or is it what is generally good for the writers of this document? The economic prosperity of France would surely have been the 'general good', in which case a vast social distinction may be drawn between the citizen and the slave, as continued slavery was important for French prosperity.

Though slavery is never actually referred to there are other points in the declaration which are contradictory and confusing when put in the context of slavery.

Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law. [Article V]

This again comes down to economic concerns. Colonial revenue is definitely not hurtful to society so therefore slavery is not hurtful to society as this is the source of the revenue. If brutal oppression of slaves is just an ordinary part of slavery then this cannot be outlawed either. In applying this to the isolated society of Saint Domingue, with an overwhelming majority of slaves, brutal repression can quite easily be seen as hurtful to society, so under this article should be outlawed. This shows that the concepts of freedom and equality in the declaration are, in the mindset they were first written, not the definition of freedom that the slaves were striving for.

If the freedom of the slaves was not that of the French revolution, what freedom was it? C. E. Fick argues that the repressed slaves, with no education, were in fact the primary architects both of their own freedom and of the victorious movement which gained for them national independence. The main instinctive aim of the slaves in their uprising was to break the shackles of slavery and in this, obtain personal liberty. Even amongst the slaves themselves there were different points of view on what their own freedom would actually resemble. Fick puts forward some distinct possibilities for what they may have been. Some slaves had only a short-term aim in mind, that is, freedom from slavery. For these slaves rebellion was directed against their masters but not the colonial system as a whole. Some took a more backward looking approach, aiming at a withdrawal from slavery and a return to social organisations roughly based on African modes of life. The most enlightened of slaves strived for a destruction of slavery, which would subsequently transform society into something new and wonderful . Some may argue along the more cynical line that the slaves in their ill education and bitterness were uprising for the sole purpose of massacring there masters as revenge for years of abuse, without any underling idealistic concept of 'freedom'. Rather then assigning one of these aims of revolt to all the slaves it would be more accurate to assume they all existed within the Saint Domingue society. But, due to the illiteracy of most slaves so therefore the lack of memoirs, it would be impossible to speculate on the proportion of slaves who held a certain view.

There was one philosophy that historians have agreed played an important role within Haitian revolutionary masses. Voodoo, the religion of the African slaves, offered a source of psychological freedom. Through voodoo slaves were able to express and define their own self-existence and see themselves as independent beings. This constituted the destruction of slavery within ones own mind Though Christianity was the only religion allowed in Saint Domingue and the slaves were all required to be Christened, voodoo still managed to exist and thrive amongst the slaves. By the incorporation of some quasi-catholic ceremonial characteristics voodoo beliefs and practices were able too flourish under the façade of Christianity . Most plantation owners turned a blind eye to voodoo practices amongst their slaves, with their only concern that the work gets done. Some, on the other hand, were suspicious of the religion, a Saint Domingue slave owner, LeCap, wrote in 180, 'They are dancing the Vaudou- an obscure dance to encourage murder- in two spots in town. We have just hung one of the principal actors... this dance is a sinister prelude' . The signal to the slaves of Saint Domingue to rise in revolt in 171 was reportedly given by Boukman Dutty, a high priest of Voodoo and coach driver, during a nighttime voodoo ceremony . This shows the power of voodoo amongst the slaves. It was through a combination of the philosophies of the French revolution and those of the voodoo religion that a template for freedom and emancipation in Saint Domingue was forged.

There were two major concessions that were granted to the blacks the Caribbean by the National Assembly prior to the creation of Haiti. These were the granting of full political rights to all free blacks and mulattos who were born or free mothers and fathers in may 171 and the abolition of slavery with the granting of full rights to all black men in the colonies in February 174 . Neither of these was based on an unselfish love of freedom and equality. Granting rights to free blacks and mulattos was a way to appease the Society of the Friends of the Blacks, who were applying increasing pressure. The civil rights of tax-paying, property-owning, non-whites seemed a much safer issue to the National assembly then that of slavery, as colonial income would not be effected. The abolishment of slavery in 174 was little more then a means of beating foreign enemies . France could only drive the British out of the Caribbean with the help of the ex-slave Francois-Dominique Toussaint L'Ouvertture, who was a general in charge of a large and powerful rebel force. He was fighting with the Spanish and would only join the French with the abolition of slavery. The fact that Napoleon Bonaparte attempted to restore slavery in 180 shows that the original granting of freedom was no more then a step in Frances selfish, anti-British agenda. The average slave, who did not enjoy the relative comfort of the military, continued labouring in plantations in slave like conditions, despite their change in status . It would take more then a declaration of freedom to the slaves on paper to actually achieve liberty.

The fact that enlightened ideas of freedom and equality could not exist in a vacuum is what led, inevitably, to the Haitian revolution . The factors of colour and colonial status, economic interest and power politics, both national and international, went a long way in clouding the thinking about the ideals evoked so much in the revolutionary decade. Freedom to the slaves was achieved not granted. Though inspired to some degree by the French revolution, the freedom of the slaves was their own. It was conceived by them and for them, in a long struggle to forge a nation of their own, separate from France or any other colonial master. The slaves gained, in the colonial revolutionary period, an opportunity to build their own nation on the principals they believe in and to leave behind the brutal oppression that they were brought from Africa to endure. At the same time France lost both its richest colony and it claim to be the motherland of liberty for the whole of mankind.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Curtin, Philip D. The rise and Fall of the Plantation Complexes essays in Atlantic history, Cambridge, 18

Eze, Emanuel Chukwundi. Race and the enlightenment a reader, Cambridge, mass., 17

Fick, Coroline. The Making of Haiti The Saint-Domingue Revolution from Below, Knoxville, TN, 10

Forster, Robert. 'The French Revolution, People of colour, and slavery' in Joseph Lkaits and Michael H. Haltzel, eds., The Globel Ramifications of the French Revolution, Cambridge, 14

Garrigus, John D. 'White Jacobins/ Black Jacobins Bringing the Haitian and French Revolutions togther in the Classroom', French historical studies (000)

Gasper, David. and Geggus, David. eds., A Turbulent Time The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean, Bloomington, 17

Geggus, David. 'Racial Equality, Slavery and Colonial succession during the Constituent Assembly', American Historical Review 4 (18)

Hunt, Lynn. and Censer, Jack. 'The Revolution in the Colonies, in Liberty, Equality, Fraternity Exploring the French Revolution, University Park, PA, 001

James, C.L.R.. The Black Jacobins Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo revolution, London, 180

Melzer and Norberg, eds., From the Royal to the Republican Body, Berkeley, 18

Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. 'An unthinkable History The Haitian Revolution as a Non-Event' in his Silencing the past Power and the Production of History, Boston, 15

PRIMARY SOURCES

Declaration of the Rights of man and of the Citizen, Signed by the representatives of the National Assembly in Paris on the 6th of August 178

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The Narcissist

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The purpose of this research is to educate everyone about the personality disorder known as narcissism. Through facts and expert opinions, I plan to discuss characteristics of people with narcissism, the many different types of narcissistic disorders, and the many different ways the mental disorder can be treated.

Narcissistic personality disorder is a complex and often misunderstood disorder. The main feature of the narcissistic personality is the exaggerated sense of self-importance, but underneath this front, the narcissist suffers from a chronically fragile low self-esteem. The ways of the narcissist are so strange that they tend to be dehumanized by society. The narcissist conjures in us images of the mythological character, Narcissus, who could only love himself, spiting anyone who attempted to touch him. Nevertheless, it is the underlying sense of inferiority which is the real problem of the narcissist. They want to give the impression that they are powerful, well-respected individuals.(World Book Encyclopedia,10)

The narcissist's behavior is designed to reaffirm his sense of adequacy. Since the narcissist is incapable of asserting his own sense of adequacy, the narcissist seeks to be admired by others. However, the narcissist's extremely fragile sense of self-worth does not allow him to risk any criticism. Therefore, meaningful emotional interactions with others are avoided. By simultaneously seeking the admiration of others and keeping them at a distance, the narcissist is usually able to maintain the illusion of importance no matter how people respond. Thus, when people praise the narcissist, his feeling of being a very important person will increase, but when criticized the feeling will usually remain unaffected because the narcissist will devalue whoever is doing the criticizing.

There are three areas of pathological functioning which characterize the narcissist. In particular, four of these narcissistic character traits best illustrate the pattern discussed above. The first trait is that a narcissistic individual has a basic sense of inferiority, which underlies a preoccupation with fantasies of outstanding achievement. Second, a narcissistic individual is unable to trust and rely on others and thus develops numerous, shallow relationships to extract tributes from others. Third, a narcissistic individual has a shifting morality which is always ready to shift values to gain favor.

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The narcissist who enters therapy does not think that there is something wrong with him . Typically, the narcissist seeks therapy because he is unable to maintain the sense of self-importance which protects him from the feelings of despair. The narcissist views his situation arising not as a result of a personal fault, rather it is some factor in the environment which is beyond the narcissist's control which has caused his present situation. Therefore, the narcissist expects the therapist not to cure him from a problem which he does not perceive to exist, rather the narcissist expects the therapist to restore the protective feeling of self-importance. It is therefore essential for the therapist to be alert to the narcissists attempts to steer therapy towards healing the injured arrogant part, rather than exploring the underlying feelings of inferiority and despair. According to studies by well known psychologists, a crisis could lead to the development of a narcissistic personality. The individual who is unable to successfully master the

challenges of this stage will sustain a narcissistic injury. In essence the narcissistic injury will occur whenever the environment needs the individual to be something which he is not. The narcissistic injury devastates the individual's emerging self. Unable to be what he truly is the narcissistically injured person adapts by splitting his personality into the nuclear (real) self and the false self. The real self becomes fragmented and repressed, whereas the false self takes over the individual. The narcissist thus learns to reject himself by hiding what has been rejected by others. Subsequently, the narcissist will attempt to compensate for his deficiencies by trying to impress others by his 'superiority'. The narcissist finally decides that there is something wrong with his ordinary self and he must act out of his other self in order to gain the respect of others. Just as the individual becomes narcissistic because that is what the environment needed him to be, he also expects the environment to change along with what he believes as well. Others are thus perceived to exist only in relation to the narcissist's needs. The term object relations thus takes on a special meaning with the narcissist. "We are objects to him, and to the extent that we are narcissistic, others are objects to us. He doesn't really see and hear and feel who we are and, to the extent that we are narcissistic, we do not really see and hear and feel the true presence of others. They, we, are objects… I am not real. You are not real. You are an object to me. I am an object to you"(http//www.mentalhealth.com/disorders/dis_details.php). It is apparent that the narcissist maintains the illusion of being merged to the object. At a psychological level, he experiences difficulties in differentiating the self from others. It is the extent of this inability to distinguish personal boundaries which determines the severity of the narcissistic disorder.

The most extreme form of narcissism involves the perception that no separation exists between the self and the object. The object is viewed as an extension of the self, in the sense that the narcissist considers others to be a merged part of himself. Usually, the objects which the narcissist chooses to merge with represent that aspect of the narcissist's personality about which feelings of inferiority are perceived. For instance if a narcissist feels unattractive he will seek to merge with someone who is perceived by the narcissist to be attractive. At a slightly higher level exists the narcissist who acknowledges the separateness of the object, however, the narcissist views the object as similar to himself in the sense that they share a similar psychological makeup. In effect the narcissist perceives the object as 'just like me'. The most evolved narcissistic personality perceives the object to be both separate and psychologically different, but is unable to appreciate the object as a unique and separate person. The object is thus perceived as useful only to the extent of its ability to promote the false self.

There are also different types of narcissism. Pending the perceived needs of the environment a narcissist can develop in one of two directions. The individual whose environment supports his feeling of self-importance, and demands that he be more than possible, will most likely develop to be an exhibitionistic narcissist. Such an individual is told 'you are superior to others', but at the same time his personal feelings are ignored. Thus, to restore his feelings of pride, the growing individual will attempt to coerce the

environment into supporting his claims of superiority and perfection. On the other hand,

if the environment feels threatened by the individual's feeling of superiority, it will attempt to suppress the individual from expressing this arrogance. Such an individual learns to keep the arrogancy hidden from others, and will develop to be a closet narcissist. The closet narcissist will reveal his feelings of self-pride when he is convinced that such revelations will be safe.

Narcissist individuals also possess ways to defend themselves. Narcissistic defenses are present to some degree in all people, but are especially pervasive in narcissists. These defenses are used to protect the narcissist from experiencing the feelings of the narcissistic injury. The most pervasive defense mechanism is the arrogance defense. Its function is to restore the narcissist's inflated perception of himself. Typically the defense is utilized when someone punctures the narcissist's self-pride by saying something which interferes with the narcissist's inflated view of himself. The narcissist will then experience a narcissistic injury similar to that experienced in childhood and will respond by expanding his self-pride, thus restoring his wounded self-concept. Devaluation is another common defense which is used in similar situations. When injured or disappointed the narcissist can respond by devaluing the offending person. Devaluation thus restores the wounded ego by providing the narcissist with a feeling of superiority over the offender. There are two other defense mechanisms which the narcissist uses. The self-sufficiency defense is used to keep the narcissist emotionally isolated from others. By keeping himself emotionally isolated the narcissist's arrogance can continue to exist unchallenged. Finally, the manic defense is utilized when feelings of worthlessness begin to surface. To avoid experiencing these feelings the narcissist will attempt to occupy himself with various activities, so that he has no time left to feel the feelings of self-worthlessness.

There are also many ways to treat narcissism. The central theme in the psychodynamic treatment of the narcissist revolves around the transference relationship which emerges during treatment. In order for the transference relationship to develop the therapist must be emphatic in understanding the patient's narcissistic needs. By echoing the narcissist, the therapist remains silent and invisible to the patient. In essence, the therapist becomes a mirror to the narcissist to the extent that the narcissist derives narcissistic pleasure from confronting his alter ego.

Once the therapeutic relationship is established two transference like phenomena, the mirror transference and the idealizing transference, transference emerge. The mirror transference will occur when the therapist provides a strong sense of validation to the narcissist. Recall that the narcissistically injured child failed to receive validation for what he was. The child thus concluded that there is something wrong with his feelings, resulting in a severe damage to the child's self- esteem. By reflecting back to his accomplishments and feelings of self-pride, the narcissist's self-esteem and internal cohesion are maintained. There are three types of the mirror transference phenomenon, each corresponding to a different level of narcissism. The merger transference will occur

in those narcissists who are unable to distinguish between the object and the self. Such narcissists will perceive the therapist to be a virtual extension of themselves. The narcissist will expect the therapist to be perfectly resonant to him, as if the therapist is an actual part of him . If the therapist should even slightly vary from the narcissist's needs or opinions, the narcissist will experience a painful breach in the cohesive self-object function provided by the therapist. Such patients will then likely feel betrayed by the therapist and will respond by withdrawing themselves from the therapist.

In the second type of mirror transference, the alter-ego transference, the narcissist perceives the therapist to be psychologically similar to them. Conceptually, the narcissist perceives the therapist and themselves to be twins, separate but alike. In the alter-ego transference for the self-object cohesion to be maintained, it is necessary for the narcissist to view the therapist as 'just like me'.

The third type of mirror transference is again termed the mirror transference. In this instance the narcissist is only interested in the therapist to the extent that the therapist can reflect his feelings of self-importance. In this transference relationship, the function of the therapist is to bolster the narcissist's insecure self.

The second self-object transference, the idealizing transference, involves the borrowing of strength from the object (the therapist) to maintain an internal sense of cohesion. By idealizing the therapist to whom the narcissist feels connected, the narcissist by association also uplifts himself . It is helpful to conceptualize the idealizing narcissist as an infant who draws strength from the omnipotence of the caregiver. Thus, in the idealizing transference the therapist symbolizes omnipotence and this in turn makes the narcissist feel secure. The idealization of the object can become so important to the narcissist that in many cases, he will choose to fault himself, rather than blame the therapist.

The idealizing transference is a more mature form of transference than the mirror transference because idealization requires a certain amount of internal structure. Oftentimes, the narcissist will first develop a mirror transference, and only when his internal structure is sufficiently strong will the idealizing transference, develop an even greater sense of self-importance. The self-object transference relationships provide a stabilizing effect for the narcissist. The supportive therapist thus allows the narcissist to heal his current low self- esteem and reinstate the damaged alter ego. However, healing the current narcissistic injury does not address the underlying initial injury and in particular the issue of the false self. To address these issues the therapist must skillfully take advantage of the situations when the narcissist becomes uncharacteristically emotional, that is when the narcissist feels injured. It thus becomes crucial that within the context of the transference relationship, the therapist shift the narcissist's focus towards his inner feelings.

The prevailing opinion amongst psychodynamic theorists is that the best way to address

the narcissist's present experience, is to utilize a hands-off type of approach. This can be accomplished by letting the narcissist take control of the sessions, processing the narcissist's injuries as they inevitably occur during the course of treatment. When a mirror transference develops, injuries will occur when the therapist improperly understands or reflects the narcissist's experiences. Similarly, when an idealizing transference is formed injuries will take the form of some disappointment with the therapist which then interferes with the narcissist's idealization of the therapist. In either case, the narcissist is trying to cover up the injury so that the therapist will not notice it. It remains up to the therapist to recognize the particular defense mechanisms that the narcissist will use to defend against the pain of the injury, and work backwards from there to discover the cause of the injury .Once the cause of the injury is discovered the therapist must carefully explore the issue with the narcissist, such that the patient does not feel threatened. The following case provides a good example of the patience and skill that the therapist must possess in dealing with a narcissistic patient.(http//www.mental disorders.com/fr0/narcpersonalitydisorder.net) "…a female patient in her mid-thirties came into a session feeling elated about having gotten a new job. All she could talk about is how perfect this job was. There was no hint of introspection or of any dysphoric effect. The therapist could find no opening and made no intervention the entire session except to acknowledge the patient's obvious excitement about her new job. Then, as the patient was leaving, the therapist noticed that she had left her eyeglasses on the table. He said, "you forgot your glasses," to which she responded with an expression of surprise and embarrassment saying, "Oh, how clumsy of me." This response presented the therapist with a slight seem in the strong armor of self-pride and offered the opportunity for him to intervene. He commented, "You are so excited about the things that are happening to you that this is all you have been able to think about; in the process you seem to have forgotten a part of yourself." The patient smiled with a mixture of amusement and recognition. In this example the patient is defending throughout the session and in a moment of surprise she is embarrassed and labels herself "clumsy", giving the therapist the opportunity to interpret the defense, and how it takes her away from herself" .(Mental Health Disorders,1).The cure of the narcissist does not come from the self-object transference relationships. Rather, the self-object transference function of the therapist is curative only to the extent that it provides an external source of support which enables the narcissist to maintain his 'internal cohesion'. For the narcissist to be cured, it is necessary for him to create his own structure (the true self). The healing process is thus lengthy, and occurs in small increments whenever the structure supplied by the therapist is inadvertently interrupted.

There are also some very strange beliefs about narcissism. Existentialists perceive narcissism to be a by-product of an alienating society. It is difficult for the individual to truly be himself because society offers many rewards for the individual who conforms to its rules. Such an individual becomes alienated because he feels that society's rituals and demands grant him little significance and options in the control of his own destiny. To compensate, such an individual takes pleasure in his own uniqueness (grandiosity), he enjoys what others cannot see and control. Thus, the alienated person "sees himself as a puppet cued by social circumstances which exact ritualized performances from him. His

irritation about the inevitability of this is counterbalanced by one major consolation. This consists of his narcissistic affection for his own machinery. That is, his own processes and parts"(http//www.mentaldisorder.com/narcissism.html)

The existential treatment of the narcissist is based on the existential tenant that all existing persons have the need and possibility of going out from their centeredness to participate in other beings. The severely alienated narcissistic individual, however, does not believe in the validity of experience outside of the self. Unlike others, the narcissist does not believe that a constructive relationship with others is possible. Existentialists therefore believe that the therapist, through emphatic understanding, must create a strong bond with the narcissist, so that he can see that others have feelings too.

Millions of people suffer from narcissism. However, not all of them are being properly treated for the disorder. When physicians can better determine the exact type of narcissism and thus pinpoint the correct treatment that should be used, treatment for the patient should start being more successful. Although not much thought of narcissism, as a serious mental disorder, exists, it is certainly recognizable among the people who have it and the others who interact with them.

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Theory of One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

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Contents

1.Introduction

1.1 Objectives

Cheap custom writing service can write essays on Theory of One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

.Theory

.1 Theory of One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

.Theory of Zeeman Effort

.Procedures

.1 Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

. Fabry-Perot Interferometer

.Part 1 Helium Spectrum

.4Part t1s Order Sodium Spectrum

.5Part Yellow D-line in the Sodium Spectrum

.6Part 4 Normal Zeeman Effort

4.Experimental Results+

4.1 Data Table 1 Spectrometer Readings from the He Spectrum

4. Calculation Table 1 Grating Constant and its Standard Error

4. Calculation TableData Points for the Calibration Curve

4.4Data Table 1st Order Spectrometer Readings from the Na Spectrum

4.5Calculation TableWavelengths and Percentage Errors using 1st

Order Diffraction Grating Equation

4.6Calculation Table 4 Wavelengths and Percentage Errors using the

Calibration Curve

4.7Data Table Spectrometer Readings for Sodium D-line Spilt

4.8Calculation Table 5 Sodium D-line Spilt

4.Graph 1 Calibration Curve

5.Discussions

5.1Possible Causes of Errors and Precaution

5.Accuracy of Diffraction Spacing

5.Comparison of the Wavelength

5.4Fine Slitting cannot be observed in the 1st Order Spectrum

5.5Interference Ring Pattern and the Magnetic Flux Density

6. References

+Experiment Results consist of the log sheets given in the laboratory manual and the graphs drawn based on the findings.

Introduction/Theory

1. Introduction

It is a well-known fact that the spectral lines of helium (He) can be used to calibrate the diffraction grating spectrometer. The calibrated equipment, in turn, can be used to determine the spectrum of sodium (Na) thus enabling us to find the wavelengths of its spectral lines. Secondly, when a cadmium spectral lamp is subjected to a magnetic field, the red cadmium (Cd) line (7=64.8nm) is split into three components, called the Lorentz triplets. This occurrence is called the "normal Zeeman effect" and can be observed using a Fabry-Perot interferometer.

1.1 Objectives

The objective of this experiment is to study the emission spectroscopy and the Zeeman effect.

The experiment can be divided into five parts

i)To calibrate the spectrometer using the helium spectrum.

ii)To determine the grating constant.

iii)To determine the spectrum of sodium.

iv)To determine the fine structure splitting into the sodium spectrum.

v)To observe the normal Zeeman effect using the cadmium spectrum.

. Theory

.1 Theory of the One-Electron Spectrum and Fine Structure of Sodium

.1.1 Discrete or Line Spectrum

A hot electrical discharge, according to the electronic structure of that element, emits a spectrum of different colored lights and a limited range of discrete wavelengths in a gas of a single chemical element. This spectrum is known as the discrete spectrum or line spectrum1. An example of this spectrum is that of helium (He), whose spectrum lines are shown in Figure 1.

Color in the He spectrumWavelength (nm)

Red667.8

Yellow587.6

Green501.6

Greenish Blue4.

Bluish Green471.

Blue447.1

Figure 1. Wavelengths of light in He spectrum

.. Origin of the Sodium (Na) Spectrum

The excitation of the Na atoms can be produced by electron impact. When electrons return from the excited level E1 (high energy state) to the original state E0 (low energy state), there is an energy difference. This energy difference is released as a photon of frequency f, which can be in the form of x-rays, visible lights etc.

1 The term line spectrum is used because images produced are usually those of a narrow slit, illuminated by the light source.

Theory

Energy Difference, E1 - Eo = hf

where h = Planck's constant

To the first approximation, the electrons of the inner complete shell produce a screening effect on the position-dependent potential V due to the charge on the nucleus.

Position-dependant Potential, V(r) = - e Zeff (r)

4᠋0 r

where e is the charge of the electron.

The energy levels Enl are similar to those of the hydrogen but with reduced degeneracy of angular momentum.

Energy levels, Enl = - m e4 Znl

8h n

An approximate formulae for Enl is given below

Enl = - m e4

8h (n - 8 nl )

where 8 nl is known as the quantum effect.

The quantum effect is dependent on the n and the l. It decreases as the l increases. The values of 8 nl of the Na atom are shown in Figure .

n l014

1.50.850.01

40.00

50.00

Figure . 8 nl values of the Na atom

The interaction of the spin 0 of the electron with its orbital moment gives rise to a reduction in the degeneracy of the total angular momentum.

j = ǚl + ½ ǚ……… ǚ l - ½ǚ

where l is the orbital angular momentum of the external momentum.

If the interaction term H in the perturbation theory is considered, viz.

H = 2(r) 0 • Î

Then, the approximation formulae for Enl is given by

Enij = Enl + 2nl ½{ j(j + 1) - S(S + 1) - l(l + 1) }

And that for the fine structure splitting is given by

Enij=l+1/ - Enij=l-1/ = ½ (l + 1) 2nl

Planck's constant = 6.6 x 10-4 J

Theory/Procedures

. Theory of the Zeeman effect

The splitting up of the red cadmium (Cd) spectral line at 64.8nm into three components in the presence of a magnetic field is called the "Normal Zeeman effect". These three lines, also known as the Lorentz triplets, occurs since the Cd atom represents a single system of total spin S = 0. Without the presence of the any magnetic field, there is only one possible D ͖ P transition corresponding to a spectral line at 64.8nm. In the presence of the magnetic field, the associated energy levels spilt into L + 1 components. Radiating transitions between these components are possible, provided that the following selections are met

∆ML = +1;∆ML = 0; ∆ML = -1

Although there are permitted transitions, only of them have the same amount of energy and the same wavelength. Therefore, only these lines will be visible to us. The transition of ∆ML = 0 occurs when the spectral line, 7 = 64.8nm.

The 1st group where ∆ML = -1 gives the --line whose light is polarized vertically to the magnetic field. The middle group where ∆ML = 0 gives a <-line whose light is polarized parallel to the direction of the field. The last group where ∆ML = +1 gives a +-line whose light is again polarized vertically to the magnetic field. This transverse or longitudinal effect Zeeman effect is observed when the magnetic field is transverse or parallel to the emerging light from the etalon respectively.

For the radiating electrons, a change in energy ∆E in the presence of a magnetic field is related to the difference in wave numbers ∆J/ of one of the -lines with respect to the central line.

∆E = EL, ML - EL-1, ML-1

= hc ∆J/

The change in the energy ∆E is proportional to the magnetic flex density B.

∆E = 8B B

where 8B is the Bohr's magnetron.

Hence by combining the above two equations, we get the relationship between the difference in the wave number ∆J/ of one of the -lines with respect to the central line and the magnetic flux density B

∆J/ = 8B B

hc

The above equation shows that ∆J/ is proportional to B and by plotting ∆J/ against B, the Bohr's magnetron 8B can be determined experimentally.

. Procedures

Equipments Spectrometer / goniometer with vernier

Diffraction grating, 50 lines/mm, grating constant d = 1684nm

The Zeeman effect refers to the splitting up of the central spectral lines of the atoms within a magnetic field.

Procedures

Helium Spectral Lamp

Sodium Discharge Lamp

Power Supply for Spectral Lamps

Lamp Holders for Spectral Lamps

Tripod Base

.1 Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

A transmission diffraction grating is a piece of transparent material on which has been ruled a large number of equally spaced slits. The spacing of the slits is called the grating spacing or grating constant and is in the range of 1000 to 000 nm.

If light of wavelength 7 falls on to a grating of constant d, it is diffracted. Intensity is maximized when the following condition is satisfied

n7 =dsin n ,

where n4 is an integer (ie n = 0, 1, , .........)

Using the above equation and values from table 1, we can determine the average spacing d between any two consecutive lines of a diffraction grating assuming that the characteristic wavelength of helium is known and the characteristic wavelengths of sodium from the angles n where these intensity maximum are observed and measured.

. Diffraction Grating Spectrometer

The Fabry-interferometer has a resolution of approximately 00 000, thus it is able of detecting even wavelength changes of approximately 0.00nm.

The interferometer (or etalon) consists of two parallel flat glass plates coated on the inner surface with a partially transmitting metallic layer. Let us consider the two partially transmitting surfaces (1) and () separated by a distance t. An incoming ray making an angle  with the normal to the plates will be split into the rays AB, CD, EF, etc. The path difference between the wave fronts of two adjacent rays will result in the interference rings. The difference in the wave numbers, ∆J of two -lines can be shown to be

∆J = 0

t ∆

where 0 is the optical path difference between two adjacent rays.

 is the difference of the squares of the radii of adjacent bright interference rings.

In the absence of a magnetic field, a series of bright interference rings corresponding to 7 = 64.8nm is observed. When the field is applied, each ring splits into three rings (i.e. +, - and <-lines). Since the lights of each spectral light is polarized, whatever the position of the analyzer in the interferometer may be, each of the rings seen without the magnetic field is split into two rings in the presence of a magnetic field.

For procedures regarding,

. Part 1 Helium Spectrum

.4 Part 1st Order Sodium Spectrum

4 n is called the order number. This equation is only valid for integers values of n and for angles n up to 0°.

Procedures/Experimental Results

.5 Part Yellow D-line in the Sodium Spectrum

.6 Part 4 Normal Zeeman Effort

please refer to laboratory manual pages 11 to 14, section 5, Procedures.

4. Experimental Results

For

4.1 Data Table 1 Spectrometer Readings from the He Spectrum

4. Calculation Table 1 Grating Constant and its Standard Error

4. Calculation TableData Points for the Calibration Curve

4.4 Data Table 1st Order Spectrometer Readings from the

Na Spectrum

4.5 Calculation TableWavelengths and Percentage Errors using 1st

Order Diffraction Grating Equation

4.6 Calculation Table 4 Wavelengths and Percentage Errors using the

Calibration Curve

4.7 Data Table Spectrometer Readings for Sodium D-line Spilt

4.8Calculation Table 5 Sodium D-line Spilt

4.Graph 1 Calibration Curve

Discussions

5. Discussions

5.1 Possible Causes of Errors and Precaution

Q. Sources of errors and steps taken to minimize or eliminate them

Firstly, one possible error encountered is the parallax error (random error). This happens while we are taking reading from the vernier scale. If our eye is not placed directly over the reading to be taken and instead, viewed the reading at an angle, there is a slight degree of error. To minimize parallax error, our direction of vision should be placed perpendicular to the scale and directly above reading to be taken.

Secondly, the placement of the diffraction grating on the spectrometer can result in systematic error. A slight angle in its position could result in differences between the actual values and the experimental results. Therefore, the diffraction grating should be placed at a right angle to the spectral lamp and as accurate as possible in order to minimize this error. Also, when the reference point is set, a systematic error can occur due to precision of the setting of this point. To minimize these systematic errors, there should be only one person who constantly determines the diffraction angle and another who records readings from the vernier scale.

Thirdly, there could be a zero error. There maybe a slight zero error in the vernier scale attached to the spectrometer. In the experiment, we actually try to minimize this error by adjusting the vernier scales and making sure that there is minimum zero error and locking the scales down when recording readings.

Next, there should be a better constant between the images and the background. It is best that the background is as dark as possible, preferably black so that the reference point can be aligned accurately with the vertical cross hair.

Lastly, one last error that could happen is the backlash error. This happens when one move the telescope backwards to measure an overshot point. There will be a huge error resulting from this measurement, as our vision will be slighted shifted away and distorted. This error can be minimized by shifting the telescope in only one direction and record the measurements.

5. Accuracy of Diffraction Spacing

Q. Comment on the accuracy of d obtained by calculation and the calibration curve

The value of d obtained by calculation is 155.7nm while the standard error of d is 75. nm. There is a standard error of 4.% in the accuracy of the answer obtained from the calculation. On the other hand, the value of d obtained from the calibration curve is 141nm while the standard error of d is given by the x-intercept, which is 4nm. The standard error in is .4%. Since the standard error derived from the calibrating curve is smaller as compared to the calculated value, the accuracy of d obtained by the calibration curve is higher (standard error of .4%). However, we must bear in mind that the scale of the calibration curve is 1 unit 0.05 for the y-axis and 4 units 50 nm for the x-axis. Therefore as the scales are generally larger, the degree of accuracy decreases. So the percentage error of the calibrated curve should be slightly higher than .4%.

Discussions

5. Comparison of the Wavelength

Q. Comment on the differences and accuracy of the 1st order Na wavelengths obtained by calculations and from the calibration curve

The calculated wavelengths are relatively accurate as the percentage errors in the calculation of the wavelengths are small. Mostly, it lies lower than 1% except for that of the red image. There is a percentage error of .8%, which is relatively higher as compared to the rest of the errors but generally still a low percentage error.

The wavelengths determined by the calibration curve are fairly accurate as the percentage errors in the calculation of the wavelengths are small. Mostly, it lies lower than 1% except for that of the red and the second green image. There is a percentage error of .% and 1.5% respectively, which is relatively higher as compared to the rest of the errors but generally still a low percentage error.

The accuracy of the wavelengths obtained from the calibration curve is lower than calculation since percentage errors in determination of the wavelengths are relatively higher. This could be because the approximation had to be made while drawing the linear calibration curve joining the point and that the scales of the curve (as mentioned in the question above) is rather large and the points marked are slightly less accurate.

5.4 Fine Slitting cannot be observed in the 1st Order Spectrum

Q. Reasons for not being able to observe the fine splitting of the yellow D-line in the 1st order Na spectrum

The reason why we are not able to observe the fine splitting the 1st order is due to the fact that the difference between the diffraction angle of the shorter wavelength and that of the longer wavelength of the yellow D-line is too small. Thus, it is not noticeable by the naked eye.

Using the intensity maxima equation,

n7 = dsin

sin1 - sin = (n/d)(71 - 7),

where (71 - 7) is a small amount and constant for all the orders of n.

Therefore, sin ᠋᠃ varies proportionally to the order of spectrum, with the angle, ᠋᠃for 1st order spectrum being too small to be seen. The fine splitting of the yellow D-line is best seen with higher orders of the spectrum but unfortunately, in out experiment, we can only managed to observe the spectrum order up to the order of n = .

5.5 Interference Ring Pattern and the Magnetic Flux Density

Q. Observation and explanation for the dependence of the interference ring pattern in the Zeeman effect on the magnetic flux density.

In the absence of a magnetic field, a series of bright interference rings corresponding to 7 = 64.8nm is observed. When the field is applied, each ring splits into three rings (i.e. +, -

and <-lines). Since the lights of each spectral light is polarized, whatever the position of

Discussions/References

the analyzer in the interferometer may be, each of the rings seen without the magnetic field is split into two rings in the presence of a magnetic field.

As the current is slowly increases from zero with the magnetic flux density increasing slowly at the same time, each ring splits up into three rings. As the current is increased further (magnetic flux increases proportionally to increase in current), each of the triplets become thicker and wider apart from each other. This is because a state of quantum number n breaks up into several sub-states when the atom is in a magnetic field; their energies are slightly more or slightly less than the energy of the state in the absence of the magnetic field. This phenomena leads to a ``splitting of individual lines into separate lines when atoms radiate in a magnetic field, with the spacing of the lines dependent on the magnitude of the magnetic field.

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Sufficient numbers of well-trained, qualified staff are provided at each Azerbaijan facility. Capacity and congestion are not a problem at this time.

Azerbaijan has fully converted to the ICAO procedural standards of providing air traffic services with the Baku FIR. Major changes include The use of flight progress strips replacing the time-distance-altitude graphs and the application of active radar separation. Radar controllers now establish radar separation between flights, apply speed control where applicable and vector flights for separation purposes to increase sector capacity and to achieve more economic routings. Procedures in providing aerodrome control will change by implementing a local control position in the tower that is responsible for all departing and arriving aircraft landing at Bina airport. Azerbaijan has prepared a draft Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP). The draft is currently reviewed for formal governmental approval. Publication is expected in the near future.

Georgia

Georgia is assigned the airspace defined by the limits of the Tbilisi FIR. Within that airspace TMAs have established about the Batumi, Kutaisi and Tbilisi airports. See Map ES-4. Air traffic control services are provided by Tbilisi ACC, Tbilisi Approach, Tbilisi Tower, Tbilisi Krug, Kutaisi Approach, Kutaisi Tower, Batumi Tower and Military operations. See Map ES-6.

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Air traffic service at Tbilisi ACC and Approach is provided using new modern, state-of-the-art equipment. The ACC, approach, search and rescue and military coordination functions at the refurbished Tbilisi ACC facility. The approach function is in the same building on a different floor. ACC has two physical positions designated North Sector and West Sector and approach has one physical position that provides air traffic services.

Baku Krug is considered part of approach for airspace, staffing, etc. The Krug controls traffic within the boundaries of the Tbilisi TMA. Tbilisi tower provides service using the ICAO standard setup in an old facility. Local control and ground control are in the tower while PAR is located in the approach control. The number of qualified controllers required to provide services and controllers in training were not available. A new building to collocate all functions is in the construction phase. Capacity and congestion are not problematic at this time. Batumi and Kutaisi are special use airports with certain restrictions. Batumi is a special use airport with certain restrictions (Russian only language). Batumi tower provides service within the TMA surface to 000 meters, using the Russian air traffic standard setup. Kutaisi is a special use airport with certain restrictions (Russian only language). Kutaisi Approach provides service within the TMA surface to 000 meters, using the Russian standard air traffic setup.

Georgia is in the process of converting to the ICAO standards of providing air traffic services. Altitude in feet, as opposed to meters and airspeed in knots rather than kilometers are used above 10,000 feet. Georgia has published an ICAO compliant Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP).

Map ES-7 Caucasus Air Traffic Management Facilities

Caucasus Technical Infrastructure

All three Caucasus countries are currently operating a modern world-class en route air navigation system and are in the process of converting their terminal operations from Russian standards to ICAO standards. Map ES- depicts the locations of the Caucasus ATM facilities and interconnections between them and adjacent ATM facilities. Map ES-10 depicts the locations of the Caucasus en route CNS facilities and interconnections between them and ATM facilities.

Armenia

ATM Facilities. Yerevan Area Control Center (ACC), and Yerevan Approach Control APP are collocated and served by a Thales automation system installed in 000 A new Thales switch manages A/G and G/G voice and AFTN Data switching. Ground-Ground voice communications are provided between the ACC and adjacent ACCs. AFTN data service is provided through the Rostov node. Yerevan Tower, Gyumri Approach, Gyumri Tower, and Stepanavan Tower operate using Russian standards and older equipment.

A/G Communications. Yerevan, Mravian, and Andranik VHF A/G radio facilities and Yerevan HF A/G radio are remoted to the Yerevan ACC and are available at the en route sector. Yerevan Approach VHF A/G radios are local and remoted to the Yerevan Approach position in the Yerevan ACC. Yerevan Tower and Ground VHF A/G radio equipment are local and used at the Yerevan Tower. The Yerevan ATIS broadcasts local aeronautical information. The Gyumri Approach frequencies are local. Gyumri Tower and Ground are local. Stepanavan Tower radios are local.

Navigation Gyumri DVOR/DME, Yerevan VOR/DME, Andranik NDB, Megry NDB, Sisian NDB, Sevan NDB, Talin NDB, Yerevan NDB provide en route navigation. Yerevan RW0 Cat II ILS, Yerevan RW7 localizer, Gyumri RW0 ILS and Stepanavan RW1 NDB approach provide terminal navigation.

Surveillance. The Russian made TRLK-11 PSR/SSR installed in 1 provides the principle surveillance data for en route operations in the Yerevan ACC. The older Russian made Irtish provides the principle surveillance data for Yerevan terminal operations. Installation of the Mravian SSR is planned for the implementation of Surveillance Step and will be remoted to the Yerevan ACC and Gyumri App. The older Gyumri Irtish currently provides surveillance information to the Gyumri APP.

Azerbaijan

ATM Facilities. Baku Area Control Center (ACC) and Approach Control (APP) are collocated and served by a Thales Automation system installed in 000. A Thales communications switch manages A/G and G/G voice and AFTN data switching. Ground-Ground voice communications are provided between the ACC and adjacent ACCs. AFTN service is provided through the Rostov and Kiev nodes. Baku Tower is currently being converted from Russian standard operation to ICAO standard operations and installation of suitable equipment. Gyandzha Approach Control (APP), Gyandzha Tower, Nakhichevan Approach Control (APP), Nakhichevan Tower continue to operate using older Russian standard equipment. Plans are made to modernize these facilities and convert operations to ICAO standards.

Map ES-8 Caucasus ATM Facilities With Connectivity Between Them And To Adjacent ATM Facilities

Air Ground Communications. The Baku VHF A/G Radio, Gyandzha VHF A/G Radio, Nakhichevan VHF A/G Radio, Baku HF A/G Radio are or will be remoted to the Baku ACC en route sector. The Baku Approach facilities are remoted to the Baku Approach position in Baku ACC. Baku Tower and facilities are local. The Baku ATIS broadcasts local aeronautical information. Gyandzha Tower and Ground frequencies are local. Nakhichevan Tower and Ground frequencies are local.

Navigation. Baku DVOR/DME, Gyandzha DME, Akhsu NDB, Yevlakh NDB, Kala NDB, and MO NDB provide en route navigation. Baku RW16 ILS, Baku RW 18 ILS, Baku RW4 ILS, Baku RW6, Gyandzha RW0 ILS, Gyandzha RW1 NDB approach provide terminal navigation.

Azerbaijan Surveillance. The Baku En Route PSR/SSR and the Baku Aerodrome SSR are remoted to the Baku ACC where they are the principle surveillance devises for en route operations and terminal operations. Installation of the Gyandzha PSR/SSR is planned for Surveillance Step and will be remoted to the Baku ACC and the Gyandzha APP. Installation of the Nakhichevan PSR/SSR is planned during Surveillance Step and will be remoted to the Baku ACC and Nakhichevan APP. Azerbaijan is currently installing new Airsys secondary radar at Baku aerodrome and plans to move the current secondary radar system to Gyandzha.

Georgia

ATM Facilities. Tbilisi Area Control Center (ACC) and Tbilisi Approach Control (APP) are collocated and served by a Northrop Grumman Automation system installed in 000. An associated communications switch both A/G and G/G voice communications. A new AFTN data switch is planned to replace an older switch. Ground-Ground voice communications are provided between the ACC and adjacent ACCs. AFTN service is provided through the Rostov node. Tbilisi Tower uses ICAO standard procedures in an older facility with some new equipment. Kutaisi Approach Control (APP), Kutaisi Tower, and Batumi Tower continue to operate using Russian standards and older equipment.

Air-Ground Communications. The Kutaisi VHF A/G Radio, Poti VHF A/G Radio, Tbilisi #1 VHF A/G Radio, Tbilisi #1VHF A/G Radio are remoted to the Tbilisi ACC West Sector, and the ACC North Sector. Tbilisi Approach is remoted to the approach position located in the Yerevan ACC. Tbilisi Tower and Ground communications equipment are located at the Tbilisi # facility and used at the Tbilisi Tower. The Tbilisi ATIS broadcasts local aeronautical information. The Kutaisi Approach and Tower frequency equipment are local. Batumi Tower equipment is local and used by tower operations.

Georgia Navigation. Kutaisi VOR/DME, Tbilisi VOR/DME, Ali NDB, Batumi NDB, Gori NDB, Mukhrani NDB, and Tsnori NDB provide en route navigation. Tbilisi RW1L ILS, Tbilisi RW1R NDB Approach provides terminal navigation.

Georgia Surveillance Facilities. Tbilisi #1 SSR, Tbilisi # PSR/SSR, Senaki SSR data is remoted to the Tbilisi ACC automation equipment where it is fused and become the principle surveillance information for en route operations. The Tbilisi ASR data is the principle surveillance information Tbilisi terminal operations. Georgia has two new Northrop Grumman secondary radar systems.

Map ES- Caucasus En Route Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance Facilities and Connectivity Between Them and ATM Facilities

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Project Summary

The following is a list of projects proposed by the ARMATS, AZANS and SAKAERONAVIGATSIA staffs for modernization and enhancement of the Caucasus regional and individual air navigation systems. Table ES-4 lists regional projects that require cooperation between the countries to complete. Table ES-5 lists the ARMATS proposed Armenian system projects. Table ES-6 lists the AZANS proposed Azerbaijani system projects. Table ES-7 lists SAKAERONAVIGATSIA proposed Georgian an system. Project descriptions are provided in the Projects Chapter of this report.

Note that this study was to focus on en route operations in the Caucasus Region. The study observes that the countries on objective have done much. Incremental improvements are required to follow through on this objective, including some of the projects listed here. In addition it is proposed that the three countries continue the study groups concept of the ICAO CANSO even if the minister level is not pursued. These efforts would lead to continued improvements in the procedural operations in the region. The study noted that terminal systems and procedures in the Capital city airports have progressed toward ICAO standards but the systems and procedures of the other airports are dated and retain Russian standards. The Azerbaijani project proposal includes modernization activities. Armenia and Georgia may also need approach this requirement.

Table ES-4 Regional Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Comm-Establish ATC unit coordination and data exchangeUnknown

Comm-Subtotal

Nav-Assure Global Navigation Satellite ServiceUnknown

Nav-Subtotal

Sur-Establish Dual Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) coverage Unknown

4Sur-Establish the sharing of radar data

Sur-Subtotal

5ATM-Establish Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) Unknown

6ATM-Establish future Required Navigation Performance 5 (RNP-5) route(s) Unknown

ATM-Subtotal

7ATC-Establish Airborne Collision Avoidance System II (ACAS II)Unknown

ATC-Subtotal

Total

Table ES-5 Armenia Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Nav-Replace 5 Non-Directional Beacons (NDB) with Distance Measuring Equipments (DME)$400,000

Nav-Subtotal$400,000

Sur-Install Mono-pulse Secondary Radar (MSSR) at Mravian$1,500,000

Sur-Subtotal$1,500,000

Sur-Replace Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) with MSSR$1,50,000

Sur-Subtotal$1,50,000

4AIS-Implement European Aeronautical Information Services DatabaseUnknown

AIS-Subtotal

5ATC-Establish harmonized selection, recruitment and training of Air Traffic Management (ATM) staffUnknown

ATC-Subtotal

6ATM-South Gate II (ARMCASP I)Unknown

7ATM-South Gate II (ARMCASP II)Unknown

ATM-Subtotal

Total$,150,000

Table ES-6 Azerbaijan Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Comm-Install remote transceivers with back-up at Ghandja and connect transceivers in Ghandja with Baku$100,000

Comm-Subtotal$100,000

Comm-Establish Satellite Communications between Baku and Nakhichevan$100,000

Comm-Establish Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network (AFTN) capability at Nakhichevan$60,000

Comm- Subtotal$160,000

4Nav-Replace Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) at Baku$150,000

5Nav-Replace NDB at Gyandzha$150,000

6Nav-Replace NDB at Nakhichevan$150,000

7Nav-Install Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) at Ghandja$00,000

Nav-Subtotal$650,000

8Nav-Install Cat III Approach Lighting System (ALS) at Baku$100,000

Nav-Install Cat III ALS at Gyandzha$100,000

10Nav-Install Cat III ALS at Nakhichevan$100,000

11Nav-Install Cat III Instrument Landing System (ILS) at Baku$1,500,000

1Nav-Install Cat III ILS at Gyandzha$1,500,000

1Nav-Install Cat III ILS at Nakhichevan$1,500,000

14Nav-Install ADS-B for helicopter operations and SARUnknown

Nav-Subtotal$4,800,000

15Sur-Replace Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) at Gyandzha$1,50,000

16Sur-Replace Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) at Nakhichevan$1,50,000

17Sur-Replace Primary Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) at Baku$4,000,000

18Sur-Replace ASR at Gyandzha$4,000,000

1Sur-Replace ASR at Nakhichevan$4,000,000

Sur-Subtotal$14,500,000

0WX-1Install Meteorological Radar at Baku$600,000

1WX-1Install Meteorological Radar at Gyandzha$600,000

WX-1Install Meteorological Radar at Nakhichevan$600,000

WX-1Subtotal$1,800,000

ATM-1Modernize Gyandzha Approach Control (APP)$5,000,000

4ATM-1Modernize Nakhichevan Approach Control (APP)$5,000,000

ATM-1Subtotal$10,000,000

Total$,010,000

Table ES-7 Georgia Proposed Projects

No.StepDescriptionStartEstimated Cost

1Establish Collaborative Civil-Military Airspace PlanningUnknown

Subtotal

Total

Financial

Revenue is expected to follow the demand for services and in particular the number of long range flights transiting the region. Projections of that demand are discussed in Chapter 1 of this report.

The second important factor in assessing the alternative futures for the Caucasus Air Navigation system is how operating cost changes as the volume of air movements increases or declines. Our report makes its assumptions very explicit and bases them on the information available from other regions.

As air navigation services around the world have been privatized, restructured, and prepared for dramatic technology changes, officials have been increasingly concerned with the additional cost of managing the system as volumes increase (or decline). As mentioned above there is considerable uncertainty about whether costs increase barely at all versus half as fast as volume. These operations have too short a track record to statistically analyze changes in cost and attribute it between volume and other factors. But their insights are supportive of our assumptions.

NAV CANADA, Airservices Australia, EUROCONTROL, and the US FAA have produced a number of studies of cost and performance. Failing to fine a clear connection between cost and distance or cost and numbers of sectors. EUROCONTROL studies reveal that the countries with the largest numbers of flights have the highest costs. They do find that the cost of providing services per kilometer flown is declining significantly over time suggesting that growth could be a factor, combined with cost-saving innovations in controlling costs.

Costs in the Caucasus region have shown no discernible increase in response to the growth in volume of air traffic. In part this is a consequence of currency devaluations, which have little or no effect on revenue collected in dollars, but may result in declines in employee and other costs in dollars. Also, the growth over the past three years has not been dramatic, especially considering that the flights by national carriers, which are not charged, have been declining at the same time, probably improving reported revenue and reported flights without any increased burden on the air navigation system.

Over time, with potential air traffic increasing by nearly 100%, the extent to which costs track revenues is an important determinant of the financial health of the systems. It is recognized by all that the systems themselves are a very large fixed cost, so that costs should increase far less than in proportion to volumes. But there is considerable uncertainty about precisely how fast.

The U.S. General Accounting Office, in its 17 study of the additional cost borne by the FAA for providing Air Traffic Services to the Department of Defense (DOD) concluded that "total" costs increase about 1-to-6 with volume of air navigation services utilization. We believe that even that figure is likely to be high rather than low, due to the emphasis placed on "allocating" costs in some sort of "sharing" process, rather than determining if the costs are truly marginal. Our round-number assumptions detailed in the table located in Section 5, pg. 5-, "ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT GROWTH Percentage Change in Air Nav Revenues & Costs Associated with 100% Increase in Aircraft Movements", imply a consistent but slightly conservative figure to a 1-to-5 increase in costs relative to volume.

The Bottom Line

Doubling the number of flights and doubling revenue will produce a major boost to the air navigation organizations' bottom lines. In fact, the total net "profit" for the region as a whole would approximately triple, was no other operations changes made.

By contrast, safety, rate, or efficiency problems would suggest a far different future. Losing half of the revenue from flights through the region would result in a nearly 5% decline in the region's total margin of revenue over cost. Two of the three countries would in fact be put into a loss situation.

Table ES-4 Income Statement

Individual Country income statements are provided separately.

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