Methods of NT Analysis

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When analyzing the New Testament various methods are employed in an attempt to gain a better overall understanding of the original text. It appears to this author that there are two broad categories by which the various methods of analysis can be grouped. First there is external analysis and secondly internal analysis. Scholars, but only when discussing "canonical criticism", do use these two terms. This author's usage of these terms should in no way be confused with "canonical criticism"; rather this is simply an attempt to organize the author's thoughts for the purpose of answering the mid-term question. The Bible, being both an ancient text and a faith-based text, requires a number of methods to identify and understand the "original" text. The cursory examination of only one facet of this book could never do justice to its extremely interesting spiritual and historically significant nature.

According to The Anchor Bible Dictionary "generally speaking the questions asked in biblical criticism have to do with the preservation and transmission of the biblical text."1 It is important to realize from the start that when one says "biblical criticism" there is no implied value judgment. The word criticism simply comes from a Greek word "Krino" which means, "to discern". In other words biblical criticism is no less or no more that a careful examination of the text of the bible. For our discussion we will concern ourselves with the text of the New Testament. It must also be said that while this author has attempted to put the various methods of analysis into two groups the division and grouping is not exact, but more artificial in nature. Often there is a blurring of the two, as each method is dependent upon the rest and no one method can really stand alone.

First we will examine those methods this author has deemed to be external methods of analysis. External methods of analysis concern themselves with way in which the surrounding world can shed light upon the text. This could be thought of as the

"Sitz im Leben", or the "setting in life." One method of examination is "Historical Criticism", which can be classified according to analysis that views the New Testament as either a document of history or as a body of literature. The purpose of this form of criticism is to achieve a historical understanding of the New Testament. This sort of analysis also includes archeology. The process of understanding the customs and practices of a particular era or geographic location is a valuable tool. This type of study brings into view the historical and cultural context in which the text was written and the context in which the author and audience lived in as well. Being able to place oneself inside the historical context is a very valuable tool in trying to understand the mindset in which the document was composed.

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Another method in this first group is "Form Criticism". This type of criticism tries to go beyond the written source and examine the oral tradition. This method tries to identify general patterns or philosophical ideas that exist not only in the Biblical text but are common among other traditions. By drawing parallels between the Bible and other literature one hopes a greater understanding of the Biblical authors intent will be realized. This method is very similar to "Tradition Criticism," which attempts to examine the history of traditions. In Tradition Criticism the way in which New Testament writers use traditional material is examined and analyzed.

Finally another way external analysis plays an important role is that the age of texts can be analyzed from an external view is by looking at the material on which the text is written. The earliest manuscripts were written on papyri next came vellum and finally parchment. These are an important way to determine age.

All of these external methods we have discussed (there are many others not mentioned) attempt to draw parallels between the text and its surroundings in an effort to reason by analogy. If one can identify similarities or parallels then perhaps those parallels can lend insight to the Biblical text. Questions such as how did the surrounding world, geographically, socially, politically, philosophically, ect affect the composition and transmission of the text can hopefully be examined based upon external analysis?

The second method, which this author has elected to call internal methods, concerns itself with ways in which the text can be analyzed and examined by what is said in the text itself. The primary method by which this is accomplished is Literary Criticism. This method looks at the words of the text and their various meanings and shades of meanings. This method allows us a different method by which to look into the mind of the author. Choices of vocabulary and the possible variance of contextual usages of the same word lend themselves to questions about authorship. Who wrote it, how many writers contributed to this particular letter or gospel? These and many other questions can be analyzed by internal methods. What type of vocabulary a writer used or grammar style are all-important aspects that reflect something about the nature of the author and how that affected the composition and transmission of the text. "Redaction Criticism" is another internal method of analysis. This method is said to "employ the findings of historical criticism"1 in that it looks at how the particular author chose to use the sources he had received. What bias do the author allow, influencing the story they tell. In a research paper you only quote those sources that support your premise and you conveniently leave out your opposition, as any good college student knows

Form criticism can also be employed here in that the study of various genre in the writing (i.e. narrative or parable) which can be instrumental in examining texts. This leads to "Source Criticism" which examines the text while trying to identify the nature of the sources used in its creation. Also there are a number of ways that internal evidence can lead to conclusions about the age and reliability of a particular text. For example generally the shorter and more difficult reading is older and/or more reliable. These characteristics represent manuscripts, which have not been edited as much.

In conclusion there are many methods that offer insight into the meaning of the text. Perhaps this author was a little bold in suggesting that the methods could be separated into two basic methods. Nevertheless the approach does help to focus one's thoughts even if only in a most basic sense. Regardless it is apparent that no one methods can hope to accomplish much on its own, rather a balanced approach utilizing as many methods as possible is preferable in gaining a true understanding of the text (if that's possible).

Freedman, D. N. (1). The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York Doubleday

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Broken Communication in The Tempest

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The Tempest is remarkable for its extraordinary breadth of imaginative vision. The world of the play is based on magic and illusion. It contains tremendous amount spectacle, but things are not often as they seem, therefore there is a certain amount of broken communication. Most of this broken communication is shown through Prospero and Miranda. Miranda doesn't take notice of what her father tries to explain to her. This emphasizes the distance between father and daughter. We notice that her relationship is tender, yet also surprisingly one-sided. Prospero charms her to sleep, so that he can set about a plan to get her a husband although he hasn't discussed this with her. The only thing Prospero can do with his powers is to bring a man to her; he can't manipulate their feelings for each other. When she first meets Ferdinand, the prince makes perfectly clear who he is, yet Miranda not only shows no sign of connecting him with the story she has just heard, but also seems genuinely confused by her father's unfriendliness.

The play is divided into small separate plots containing different types of groups. Prospero is the only human character that may posses knowledge of all these groups spread out on the island and power over them, but they themselves are ignorant of one another's existence for most of the play. This occurs between Alonso and his son Ferdinand, who have no knowledge of one another's existence, and Miranda, who doesn't know that there are other men on the island. Also Trinculo and Stephano didn't know about each other's existence on the island.

Even within these groups of characters, the communication is imperfect. The relationship is not based upon meetings and dialogue as in most plays. The characters in the play seem equally confusing. They are given no lines to speak at all, or various words in conflicting interpretations, which precisely in this moment exceed some sort of explanation. Examples of these incommunicado moments are Prospero's words throughout the play, which reflect a variety of emotions irritation, compassion, amusement, bitterness, regret. These feelings are transmitted powerfully by Shakespeare's use of verse for Prospero. I suggest that Prospero's verses are aimed for the higher class, who speak in a more sophisticated way and can relate to what Prospero is saying. However, the causes of these verses, at a number of important moments, remain hidden and unexplained. This distance received from the main character, forms many of the problems that arise in the play.

More groups that show incommunicado moments are Prospero and Miranda, from the first scene onwards, who seem to talk between a gap. With Ferdinand, Miranda achieves an intense break down in communication as well.

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Antonio and Sebastian have some initial misunderstandings, "Do you understand me?", though these disappear quickly. They gained a communion of evil, with entire understanding, which is set as a contrary to the communion of innocence and trust between Ferdinand and Miranda.

The difficulty which people experience in understanding each other, partly arises from the abnormality of their mental condition. Which is seen firstly with Ferdinand, who is confused and traumatised. He enters the play locked up in a lonely, intensely personal world of grief. His mind has been affected even before he makes his first appearance, in abstruse ways, by the power of Ariel's music. His first impression of Miranda is that of a goddess, and he thinks he's in a dream, as he says, " As in dream, are all bound up".

Secondly, the triumvirate group of Caliban & co are artificially misunderstanding each other because of the high percentage of alcohol in their blood. We notice their communication problem from the first moment of their meeting; in act II, scene , were Caliban is frustrated with Prospero's behaviour towards him. Caliban notices Trinculo and mistakes him for one of Prospero's spirits, which is rather odd, considering he should know the difference between Prospero's spirits and real humans. Anyhow, Caliban thinks this spirit has come "to torment" him, so he hides and pretends he's a rock. This shows a great deal of misinterpretation. The second happening is when Trinculo explores Caliban, "A man or a fish? Dead or alive?", he is unable to recognize the difference between a man and a fish. Stephano is the only one who enters in a state of inebriation; therefore his misunderstanding of the situation is acceptable. He convinces Caliban to drink, converting him into a less comprehensible person, who will start to adore Stephano by misinterpreting his words, which he later on will notice as he sobers up.

I agree with the opinion that most of the misunderstandings spring from the interventions of an invisible Ariel, who stirs up the confusion. This is clearly shown in act II, scene where Caliban is telling Stephano to fulfil their plan on killing Prospero. Caliban tells how he's a "subject to a tyrant, a sorcerer, that by his cunning hath cheated" him of the island, when Ariel intervenes and says, "Thou liest". Caliban thinks Trinculo is accusing him, and so an 'argument' arises between them. Caliban keeps on saying bad comments about Prospero and of how to kill him, but Ariel intervenes again and Caliban goes back to Trinculo, this repeats itself continuously.

At the end of The Tempest, all the characters meet for the first time, and communication should be functioning, but strangely enough it is not. They don't really communicate with each other at all, and Prospero, who has ordered these revelations and discoveries, is still essentially alone. This stresses the lack of relationship between the characters.

Even for the reader there is some sort of broken interpretation, because there are many opposed ways of seeing a given event or moment in time. Therefore we know that the play is written in a very open way, and much of its quality hangs upon riddles, which cannot be resolved. Shakespeare has submerged facts about characters and situations, which he seems to have worked out in his own way, but decided not to explain in the play itself.

The whole play can be looked at as one gigantic metaphor, not giving a clear explanation of what, how and why.

The comedy is also unusually short by the Elizabethan standards, yet it gives the impression of being much bigger than it actually is when it comes to mentioning the time elapsed. Too much is happening in the course of three hours, therefore I think the only way of explaining it, is for me to suggest that the story of The Tempest is a dream. Considering it contains all aspects of a dream-like scene; spirits, magic, irrational speed, misunderstandings and mystical atmosphere. The Tempest by William Shakespeare (Penguin)

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Barrier Free

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Barrier Free Report

The area that I will be doing my barrier free project report on will be the parking at St Clair College. With grades twelve, and thirteen both graduating this year, the Rhodes Campus closing and moving in The Ford Centre for Excellence in Manufacturing, staff and students are interested of what the college is proposing for parking coming school year. St Clair College will be expecting the number of student's this fall to grow, and I've noticed that there are very limited blue spaces for the physically challenged, and when see available blue spaces there quite a walk to the school. The parking at St Clair College is great barrier free project to do a report on because of the frustration of the students from the beginning of the year. And the frustration of the physically challenge because of the limited spaces they have and distance they have to travel. I

To answer some of these questions I took the liberty of interviewing Ross Langill the manager of parking. Mr Langill and has come up with reasonable answers to the interview questions. My first question to Mr Langill was in regards to the number of students that will be attending St Clair College in the coming fall. "How will the school accommodate the growing number of students in coming fall?" and he came up with this, " the college is looking at various options for September start-up, including building new parking lots. In regard to new lots, they are trying to find suitable locations. Obviously, there is not much space left around the buildings and many people are not in favour of taking away anymore "green spaces" near the building. The college is considering going "up" than "out" but the costs is prohibitive. A basic parking garage structure costs approx. twelve grand per space to build and the college is concerned about how much they would have to raise the cost of parking in order to recoup that money over 10 to 0 year period. It is my personal opinion that we will see more surface lots away from the building before we see any parking structures". To further this question I have asked him that if the school wanted to build "up", wouldn't parking structures be the best bet for the school. He's reply " money" and the conversation ended. Mr Langill did not disagree of the proposal of parking structures but can only make recommendations regarding parking, he is only a support staff member so he does not have the final say of the budget or any plans. He knows of a Senior Administration who's talking to his supervisor and that some meetings have included representatives from the Student Representative Council (who apparently have submitted some recommendations of their own). And he suggested that if any students have any recommendations about parking, they should first approach SRC. And came up with the name George Rabideau president of SRC.

The next question Mr Langill and I discuss was in regards to the flow of the vehicles coming in and out of St Clair College. Mr Langill response was " the traffic flow are never congested and as bus routes, we haven't received and complaints from transit Windsor about congested traffic, except in the bus loop itself and we haven't had any complaints from the students about the buses". I asked him if they would open up street entrances of the side streets? He replied with " accessing roads as exits or entrances I am not sure if that has been mentioned, but I would suggest it be brought up to the SRC. I would believe that the City of Windsor would have to get involved in any project of this nature. It has been suggested in the past, to open Lot S all the way to Cousinneau. One problem with that is that house properties that are currently in that area. Another is that the Ministry of transportation has always indicated they do not want another access to Cousineau Rd. that close to the traffic lights at number highway and Cousineau.

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There are always obstacles in making a school more efficient, but can't put a price on making a barrier free for the physically challenged. The question that I asked Mr Langill was, "I've noticed that that there are limited blue spaces for the physically challenged, and that there at the back of the school where they have to walk pretty far considering that there physically challenged?" Mr Langill's response was, " the Bylaw calls for 14 handicap spaces for the first 6 total spaces, and then for 1 additional blue space for each 50 total spaces". Then would go on saying, "The College has always been over the number of handicap spaces required by the City Bylaw. Currently, however, we have been granted an "exception" to the Bylaw (lowering the number of needed spaces) during the construction of the Ford Centre for Excellence in Manufacturing. Once that construction is finished, and new handicap spaces are built, we will again be over the minimum requirement. As of now, we are finding that we have no days in which all the Handicap spaces in "A" and "J" have been used. Lots "A" and "J" are closest to the buildings. We put a couple f Handicap spaces in lot "H", near the Animal Clinic Building, in case there were students accessing that building who needed those spaces. We also put some Handicap spaces in lot "F", on the assumption that "a" and "J" ever did fill up, these spaces would then be in the closest Student Lots to the building. We have noticed a few people accessing these spaces, but they are walking and not using wheelchairs. When we see these people, we do tell them about the closer spaces in "A" and "J" in case they want to access them. Usually though, if someone with a Handicap Permit does not know where the closest spaces are, they can contact the parking office prior to their first day at the College". He also says, "' some of the handicap spaces in "J" lot may be closed once The Ford Centre building opens and there are plans to add additional handicap spaces in the "C" lot side of the Ford Centre in part of the area now occupied by the construction fence". My last question to Mr Langill was there any modifications to any of the blue spaces? His reply was "in regard to modifications to the original parking for the physically challenged, the Engineering Dept of our Division has made sure that there are "cuts" in the sidewalks in any area that blue spaces are located. Other than the additional spaces near the Animal Clinic building, I would say the only changes I am aware of are, additional spaces being built for newer buildings.

The interview with Mr Langill has brought me to the conclusion on all the parking problems that money, the City Bylaws and the interest of neighbouring houses will always be faced. And with the last question about the blue spaces Mr Langill put to rest the concerned for the blue spaces. With the double cohort coming next fall it will be real interesting on what St Clair College is going to do. I've asked the Mr Langill about the proposed parking and told me that they might be building behind the school. I took the

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Catalogue essay on leonardo da vinci

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CATALOGUE ESSAY

We can always tell a Leonardo work by his treatment of hair, angelic in its fineness and by the lack of rigidity of the contour. The angels face in the painting known as The Virgin of the Rocks, has an interior and artistic wisdom that is like no other artwork. This painting is by world-renowned artist Leonardo da Vinci. It was painted in-between 150 and 1506 in the period known as the High Renaissance. The Virgin of the Rocks, also known as The Madonna of the Rocks, is in the style of Leonardos earliest Florentine period, with its soft and glowing colours.

This work has represented the human form in that it has a womanly or motherly air about it. You can see that the gaze of the virgin in the middle is on the two babies.

Leonardo da Vincis major influence was his first teacher, Andrea Del Verrocchio. He worked as an apprentice at Verrocchios studio. One day, they were working on a panel-picture of St. John baptizing Christ. Leonardo painted an angel so well compared to that of Verrocchios that it is said that Verrocchio decided to give up painting then and there because a child could paint better than him.

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Painting for Leonardo could only succeed when clear principles were followed. The most important of these was the power of mathematics. He compared painting to philosophy; both were concerned with looking beyond appearances to the underlying structure and movement.

The first object of the painter is to make a flat plane appear as a body in relief and projecting from that plane

(Leonardo da Vinci)

He has used three different techniques in three of his famous works, the most famous being the Mona Lisa. Here he used the sfumato technique. He shaded the contours and backgrounds in opposition to areas of intense light. The emphatic play of light and shade creates a special atmosphere, half way between a dream and reality.

In the Last Supper, he used perspective. He found the vanishing point, which is the exact middle of the canvas. Two vertical lines were then drawn to create a large square in the center of the canvas and diagonals from the centre to the corners of the square were drawn to form the lines of perspective.

Another technique is called Chiaroscuro, which is Italian for light-dark. This is where the figures seem to blend in with their surroundings, while their faces or another body part gleams out from the darkness. An example of this is The Virgin of the Rocks.

A few other works by Leonardo include The Annunciation, The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and The Adoration of the Magi.

The period of time that Leonardo da Vinci belonged to is known as the High Renaissance, renaissance meaning rebirth. This period lasted between 140 and 150. During this time, artists were more interested in impressive art that had a universal idea rather than a naturalistic expression. Renaissance painting marked the transition from the medieval to the modern world and laid the foundations for modern Western values and society. It signifies a distinct style, where painters tried to create the illusion of reality through the use of linear perspective. They modelled with colour and light to suggest weight and volume.

Renaissance painters worked freely and inventively rather than strictly. They also strived for idealism and realism in their works.

This century like a golden age has restored to light

the arts, which almost disappeared; poetry, painting,

architecture, sculpture and music. And all this in Florence.

(letter by the Italian scholar Marsilio Ficino to Paul

Middelburg, 14)

A group of monks, one day, offered Leonardo a contract to paint a religious picture. They told him exactly what they wanted and how it was to be done. He produced what was called, The Virgin of the Rocks. It was far richer in design, colour and feeling than what the monks had expected it to be. They accused him of not doing what they wanted and took him to court.

This painting shows how Leonardo had progressed in his studies of light, shade and perspective. He explained that the shapes of objects were not made of lines, but instead of light and shade. He was the first Florentine artist to use mainly oil on his painting with which he was able to model forms through light and shade.

The story of The Virgin of the Rocks is based upon a legend that the Christ child met John the Baptist in the wilderness. This painting is a favourite among many people because of the delicacy of the figures. The face of the virgin is at the apex of a pyramid formed by the faces of an angel, the baby Jesus and the baby John the Baptist. They are sitting in a dimly lit grotto setting of rocks and water that gives the work its name.

The virgins face radiates light and also there is a sense of pain on her face as if she can foresee the pain difficult destiny that her son will have to endure. There is also an atmosphere in the barren landscape, which gives the scene a visionary quality.

There was the effect of aerial perspective, where the tones blended towards a pale horizon, giving the full impression of distance in the picture. The four figures also seem to blend in with the rocks and plants, which surround them, while their faces have a glow that reaches out to the viewer. No artist ha ever filled a painting with shadows before. The flowers in the bottom left hand corner are painted with accuracy and detail. They are lifted towards the viewer and the light only falls on the petals. The drapery of the angel is also light and the shape of the body can be seen.

In conclusion, The Virgin of the Rocks is a clear example of how Leonardo effectively makes the transition between the Tuscan manner of Quattrocento and the more graceful beauty that is associated with the Renaissance. One form glides gently into another producing a masterpiece that overpowers the spectator.

To the boldness and greatness of design, Leonardo

adds the counterfeiting of all the minute details of

nature, just as they are…he is most abundant in copying

from nature and most profound in artistic technique.

(Giorgio Vasari)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Rosa Maria Letts, Cambridge Introduction to the History of Art The Renaissance, published by the press syndicate of the University of Cambridge in 181.

.Rolf Toman, The Art of the Italian Renaissance, published by Konemann Verlagsgessllschaft in 18.

.Marianne Sachs, Leonardo and His World, published by Ward Lock limited in Great Britain in 17.

4.Januszczak Waldemar & Jenny McCleery, Understanding Art, published by Macdonaldand Co. in London in 18.

5.Giorgio Vasari, The Great Masters, published by Lauter Levin Associates in 186.

6.www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/vinci/

7.www.webgod.net/Leonardo/Human/Studies1.htm

8.www.kfki.hu/~arthp/htm/l/leonardo/painting/……

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Water shortage

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Water. If youve got it, you probably take it for granted. But a quick scan of the globe will indicate to us that water shortages are looming.

The World Bank reports that 80 countries now have water shortages that threaten health and economies while 40 percent of the world more than billion people have no access to clean water or sanitation.

About 5 million people die each year from poor drinking water, poor sanitation, or a dirty home environment -- often resulting from water shortage.

China, with 1.6 billion people, is the one area worrying most people most of the time, says Marq de Villiers, author of the recently published Water . In dry Northern China, the water table is dropping one meter per year due to overpumping, and the Chinese admit that 00 cities are running short. They are diverting water from agriculture and farmers are going out of business.

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In India, home to 1.00 billion people, key aquifers are being overpumped, and the soil is growing saltier through contamination with irrigation water. Irrigation was a key to increasing food production in India during the green revolution, and as the population surges toward a projected 1.6 billion in 05, its crops will continue to depend on clean water and clean soil.

Israel (population 6. million), invented many water-conserving technologies, but water withdrawals still exceed resupply. Over pumping of aquifers along the coast is allowing seawater to pollute drinking water.

Mexico City (home to 0 million people) is sinking because the city sucks out underground water faster than the aquifer can be refilled.

Texas is moving toward private, for-profit water sales. The water will be mined from aquifers that are disappearing fast. No word on what the private suppliers, including corporate raider T. Boone Pickens, will do once the aquifers run dry.

Cause of water shortage

A prime cause of the global water concern is the ever-increasing world population. As populations grow, industrial, agricultural and individual water demands escalate. According to the World Bank, worldwide demand for water is doubling every 1 years, more in some regions. Water supply cannot remotely keep pace with demand, as populations soar and cities explode.

Population growth alone does not account for increased water demand. Since 100, there has been a six-fold increase in water use for only a two-fold increase in population size. This reflects greater water usage associated with rising standards of living. It also reflects potentially unsustainable levels of irrigated agriculture.

Some experts claim climate change has the potential to worsen an already gloomy situation. With higher temperatures and more rapid melting of winter snowpacks, less water supplies will be available to farms and cities during summer months when demand is high.

Meanwhile many countries suffer accelerating desertification. Water quality is deteriorating in many areas of the developing world as population increases and salinity caused by industrial farming and over-extraction rises. About 5 percent of the worlds cities still dump raw sewage into their waters.

Water Fights

More frequently water is being likened to another resource that quickened global tensions when its supplies were threatened. A story in The Financial Times of London began Water, like energy in the late 170s, will probably become the most critical natural resource issue facing most parts of the world by the start of the next century. This analogy is also reflected in the oft-repeated observation that water will likely replace oil as a future cause of war between nations.

More than a dozen nations receive most of their water from rivers that cross borders of neighboring countries viewed as hostile. These include Botswana, Bulgaria, Cambodia, the Congo, Gambia, the Sudan, and Syria, all of whom receive 75 percent or more of their fresh water from the river flow of often hostile upstream neighbors.

In the Middle East, a region marked by hostility between nations, obtaining adequate water supplies is a high political priority. For example, water has been a contentious issue in recent negotiations between Israel and Syria. In recent years, Iraq, Syria and Turkey have exchanged verbal threats over their use of shared rivers.

solutions

A technological solution that some believe would provide ample supplies of additional water resources is desalination. Desalination -- the removal of salt from salt water -- would be the ultimate solution to water woes -- if it can be done cheaply enough. Thats a big if The best estimates are $ to $.50 per ton for desalination. Desalination also takes a lot of electricity

Free water is bound to be wasted..

So some of the water researchers argue that a market approach to water management would help resolve the situation by putting matters on a businesslike footing. They say such an approach would help mitigate the political and security tensions that exacerbate international affairs. For example, the Harvard Middle East Water Project wants to assign a value to water, rather than treat rivers and streams as some kind of free natural commodity, like air.

Most water in developing countries, especially in agriculture, is not metered, and you cant charge for volume unless you have a way to measure it. She suggests that rationing or better technology could encourage more efficient use where water cannot be metered.

Agriculture, which uses about 70 percent of total fresh water, offers much larger savings. Drip irrigation, pioneered by Israel, delivers water directly to the crops roots. Although its more expensive to start with, its far more frugal as well in terms of water. And delivering water steadily to the roots improves production as well. Postel writes, Studies in India, Israel, Jordan, Spain and the U.S. have shown time and again that drip irrigation reduces water use by 0 to 70 percent and increases crop yield by 0 to 0 percent compared with flooding methods.

Other strategies to confront the growing global water problem include slowing population growth, reducing pollution, better management of present supply and demand and, of course, not to be overlooked, water conservation. As Sandra Postel writes in her book, Last Oasis, Doing more with less is the first and easiest step along the path toward water security.

Overall, the problem is an unending demand, caused by soaring population and industrialization, splashing up against a finite supply. Rather than continually looking for another river to dam the world should be working more intelligently with the existing supply. We need a fundamental shift to meeting basic human needs and improving efficiency rather than continuing to find new sources. Thats a no-win proposition. Every additional unit we take out of the natural environment causes environmental degradation. We need to do more with less through a focus on policy and institutions.

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Iberian Pennisula

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The history of the Iberian Peninsula (today's Spain and Portugal) is busy with migrations, invasions, and the involvement of various people groups. For perspective, Site Timeline records the date of the appearance of Earth as 4.5 billion B.C., the extinction of dinosaurs along with the appearance of primates as 65 million B.C., the first motion picture starring Raquel Welch in 1 million B.C. (this timeline has a sense of humor), and the first anatomically modern humans appear in Africa and migrate across Asia in 10,000-100,000 B. C. In 0,000B.C., humans probably first appear in North and South America, and cave murals are first drawn in European caves.

The European History website notes that in ,000 B.C., "Neanderthal man is located at Zafarraya, southern Spain, and in ,000 B.C., "Neanderthals are still evident at Andalusia toward Gibraltar, Spain."

In 5,000 B.C., "archeological discovery of a txistu flute suggests the Basque culture existed at this time in the current territory of France/Spain/Portugal. The Basque are believed to represent the indigenous peoples of Europe and their language is not related to any other language of the world." Archaeo News shares that genetics is being used to help trace the migration of the Basque from East Africa to Asia and on to where they settled in France and Spain. The cave paintings in northern Spain are thought to be painted by the Basque. Cave art is also located in the south east coastal region of Spain. The paintings show dress, weapons, dancing, and hunting activities.

The Magdalenian culture (18,000 to 8,000 B.C.) is an example of cave and antler art, the most elaborate being in northern Spain.

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In 10,000 B.C., global warming reduced the game population, causing the people to migrate and turn to plant life and seafood to eat. The Azilian or Painted Pebble culture was located in Northern Spain at this time.

European History states that by 8,500, Spain is occupied by the Iberian Capsin culture. This culture is closely related to cultures in Africa who migrated north through Spain. Site Timeline dates 4000 B.C. for "Iberians migrate to today's Spain, from either northern Africa or central Europe."

The Metropolitan Museum website's Met Timeline shows the Iberian Peninsula having Late Epipaleolithic and Early Neolithic cultures from 6000-4500 B.C., Late Neolithic cultures from 4500-50 B.C., Chalcolithic cultures from 50-50 B.C., and Early Bronze Age from 50-1500 B.C. Also, in 4500 B.C., "the earliest farming takes place on the Iberian Peninsula as established by grains of cultivated barley found in a cave site near Alicante, Spain. Sedentary agriculture fosters cooperation among communities and the formation of villages consisting of animal pens and huts made from branches." Later, in 4500-50 B.C., "the rarity of open-air settlements suggests the continuation of a relatively mobile society. Collective burials in Iberia are found in natural caves and in a variety of artificial chambers. In Portugal, the construction of megalithic tombs is well under way."

From 50-50 B.C., Central Portugal and southeast Spain develop fortified settlements. Because of agriculture, these villages have long-term occupation. Hints of distinction between social status and rank are found within and between these communities. They used polished stone tools, made ceramics, and practiced a cult of the dead. Between 000-000 B.C., "evidence for the 'Almerian culture' is found throughout the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The preference is for open-air villages and simple chambered tombs."

The Early Bronze Age (50-1500 B.C.) and the Middle and Later Bronze Age (1500-700 B.C.) are characterized by the Met Timeline. "Across the Italian and Iberian peninsulas there are significant migrations, changes in settlement patterns, and an influx of eastern Mediterranean goods." Specifically, in 1700-1000 B.C., "the Argaric culture in southeast Spain is marked by a change in settlement patterns. Villages are moved to defensible hilltops, and houses change from round to rectangular. Instead of collective burials in chambered tombs or caves, the dead are buried individually under house floors with many burial goods indicating personal wealth."

In 1100 B.C. Phoenicians from Tyre arrive in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula and establish a settlement at Gadir (Cadiz), followed by four other settlements. Also, the Met Timeline states, "By bartering with local populations for their mineral wealth, the Phoenicians gained political and cultural control over the indigenous communities." The Phoenicians were really the first to make contact with the Iberians. They were also a great factor in the development of the Iberians from a group of tribes into a civilized nation. The Phoenicians introduced writing to the Iberians.

The Iberian Peninsula is the focus of the Met Timeline for the years, 1000 B.C. to 1 A.D., with the dates of the Iberian Culture being 600 B.C. to 00 A.D. "In the first half of the millennium, Celtic tribes across the Pyrenees mix with the Iberians to form the Celtiberians, a large ethnographic group in the north central part of the peninsula. In the south, Iberian culture is influenced by civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean through trade and colonies established first by the Phoenicians, and later the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans." Site Timeline has 500 B.C. as the date when Celts begin invading and "absorb" the Iberians.

The Celts were the first "clearly definable group of immigrants from central or northern Europe."

The Met Timeline lists the following as other key dates. In 600 B.C., "Phocaeans, Greeks from northern Ionia, found a trading station at Emporia in Tartessus, a region of south Spain. Tartessus' trade with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians made it wealthy." However Tartessus collapsed in 540 B.C. after the Battle of Aleria, when Tartessus was defeated by the forces of the Carthaginians and the Etruscans.

The Punic Wars occurred from 64-01 B.C. The first Punic War resulted in the defeat of Carthage by Rome. The Carthage commander, Hamilcar Barca, established his command at Gadir (Cadiz). Barca took over Spain with its rich silver mines and built a fort at Akra Leuke (Alicante). The second Punic War began when Carthage attacks Saguntum. The Met Timeline states that "Troops led by Hannibal (son of Hamilcar Barca) cross the Pyrenees, then north over the Alps, to assemble on the banks of the Po. When the Roman general Publius Scipio lands at Emporium and Roman conquest of Spain begins. The Carthaginians are defeated at Zama. Carthage surrenders and is forced to pay an enormous war indemnity and abandon all its possessions in the Iberian Peninsula."

Finally, in 7-1 B.C., Caesar Augustus begins the Cantabrian Wars which result in Roman control over Spain and Portugal.

Please note that this sample paper on Iberian Pennisula is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Iberian Pennisula, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Iberian Pennisula will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Music and Language Skills development

If you order your cheap custom essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Music and Language Skills development. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Music and Language Skills development paper right on time.

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Trends In Curriculum Development

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Music and Language Skills Development

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The whole problem can be stated quite simply by asking, Is there a meaning to music? My answer would be, Yes. And Can you state in so many words what the meaning is? My answer to that would be, No.

Aaron Copland

I think I should have no other mortal wants, if I could always have plenty of music. It seems to infuse strength into my limbs and ideas into my brain. Life seems to go on without effort, when I am filled with music.

George Eliot

The debate over the importance of music in life and in education has been long lived. Perhaps it is the pleasurable quality of music which has made many dismiss it's importance to the overall education of a child. Perhaps the reasoning is if it is enjoyable it can not possibly be beneficial to learning. Or perhaps also many do not fully comprehend the depth and breadth of cognition involved in the musical process.

During the 180's and 10's tremendous leaps were made toward understanding how the brain functions. Through vast experimentation and study in the field of neurobiology, neuropsychology and cognitive psychology, many new theories regarding how the brain functions and how we learn were formed. Among the most interesting topics raised from amid this maelstrom of information regards music and it's affect on cognitive development. Musical education has long been supported as an integral part of a well rounded child, but until recently attempts to calculate and measure it's extra-musical affects on learning and brain development were not attempted.

Howard Gardener's groundbreaking theory of multiple intelligences has transformed educators approach to learning in the classrooms across this country and around the world. includes Musical Intelligence among the seven multiple intelligences first listed in his 18 publication Frames of Mind The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner defines musical intelligence as the capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms. Gardner's theories have inspired many to explore and experiment with asynchronous learning theories and methods of teaching using multiple intelligences, including music. Gardner's theories support the idea that music can be used to teach subject matter from any pedagogy by appealing to the musical intelligence of the individual. Being a musician I can attest to the fact that although I will forget my coat in class on a cold night, or where I left my keys I can immediately recall the lyrics and music to well over a hundred songs. Information or stories in the form of song lyrics stay with us sometimes for a lifetime. Among Gardeners more recent assertions regarding his theory we find a crucial and intriguing idea

In the January 17 article, The Musical Mind, Gardner was quoted as saying that music might be a special intelligence which should be viewed differently from other intelligences. He stated that musical intelligence probably carries more emotional, spiritual, and cultural weight than the other intelligences. But perhaps most important, Gardner says, is that music helps some people organize the way they think and work by helping them develop in other areas, such as math, language, and spatial reasoning. In a January 17 publication, Gardner states that school districts that lop off music in a childs education are simply arrogant and unmindful of how humans have evolved with music brains and intelligences. Students are entitled to all the artistic and cultural riches the human species has created.(Harvey)

Beyond using music as a teaching tool studies have suggested that the mere process involved with listening to music can increase memory and improve other cognitive process, facilitate higher level brain activity and remediate neurological dysfunction. Educational methods first developed through the research of Dr. Georgi Lazanov and more popularly in America by Dr. Alfred Tomatis claim that listening to certain types of music can increase brain function and in effect make you "smarter"(Harvey) Author Don Cambell's book The Mozart Effect has done much to popularize the work and theories of Dr. Tomatis. Expecting parents and solicitous parents of young children have spent millions on books, compact discs, videos and other programs based on the principal that listening to classical music can increase IQ.

Studies have made connections between students literacy test scores and separate musical instruction. At one medium sized university it was determined through cross referencing Nelson Denny reading tast scores and enrollment records that music education majors had the highest reading test scores of any other major at the university. (Nierman) Although not conclusive this and other studies conducted using students at different stages of development have asserted that musical education seems to have a positive effect on literacy rates.

What effect does this have on the development of curriculum? Music has often in the past been considered an "extra" in regards to the regular curriculum in schools. Often among the first programs cut, music education programs have been viewed as existing in an educational vacuum. It is not difficult at all to find hundreds and perhaps thousands of reports based on scientific and statistical data that refute this idea. Music has shown itself to be a powerful teaching tool. There is evidence that learning to read music and to play an instrument increases children's brain activity and optimizes memory. Listening to and playing music has shown positive results for learning across curriculums. Curriculum developers have undoubtedly taken note of these findings and hopefully stressed the importance of music in education for all subject areas and especially for language skills and literacy. Musical education is more than expendable enrichment and should not be treated as a luxury but rather as an exercise for the mind which can improve cognitive skills in general and therefore belongs as an integral part of every students education.

Works cited

Arthur Harvey. "An Intelligence View of Music Education"

Articles from MENC State Music Educators Association Journals

http//www.menc.org/networks/genmus/litarticles.html

Glenn E. Nierman. Musical Instruction and Language Skills Development Articles from MENC State Music Educators Association Journals

http//www.menc.org/networks/genmus/litarticles.html

P.H. Wood.(10). The comparative academic abilities of students in education and in other areas of a multi-focus university. Unpublished paper. ERIC Document Number ED7480

Please note that this sample paper on Music and Language Skills development is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Music and Language Skills development, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Music and Language Skills development will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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